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Orlando Executive Airport

Orlando Executive Airport

The Orlando Executive Airport is an airport located in Orlando, Florida primarily serving the general aviation community. The airport sits on 1,056 acres (4.3 km²) of land.

History

Opened in 1928 as the Orlando Municipal Airport, the airport was the first commercial airport in central Florida. The United States Postal Service started airmail service to Orlando the following year. The United States Army took control of the airport in 1940 for use as a training facility and renamed it the Orlando Air Base. For six years, the airport remained under military control until 1946, when it was released back to the city of Orlando. The same year, commercial service with Delta Air Lines and Eastern Airlines began. Just five years later, the airport built its main terminal, a two-story structure with a built-in control tower. The terminal stood until 1999. In 1961 the airport was renamed again, this time called the Herndon Airport. The name change was in preparation for moving commercial air service to the new Orlando Jetport, which is today the Orlando International Airport. By 1968, commercial airlines no longer served Herndon and it became primarily a general and corporate aviation facility. In 1976, the city gave up control of the airport and transferred the property and all operational responsibilities to the Greater Orlando Aviation Authority or GOAA. GOAA renamed the airport to its present-day name of Orlando Executive Airport in 1982.

Present day

Today, the Orlando Executive Airport serves as a general aviation and corporate aviation airport for the greater Orlando area. Its proximity to the East-West Expressway as well as downtown Orlando makes it a popular airport for business and pleasure travelers alike. In 2003, the airport had 240,000 operations (takeoffs and landings) on its two runways. However, the airport is still considered the "minor" airport of Orlando, Florida, as the Orlando International Airport remains the primary airport for both domestic and international flights, drawing significantly more passengers every year. In August 2004, the airport suffered significant damage when Hurricane Charley overturned airplanes and damaged hangars.

External links

- [http://www.orlandoairports.net/goaa/orl/index.htm Orlando Executive Airport Homepage] Category:Airports in Florida

Airport

An airport is a facility where aircraft can take off and land. At the very minimum, an airport consists of one runway (or helipad), but other common components are hangars and terminal buildings. Apart from these, an airport may have a variety of facilities and infrastructure, including fixed base operator services, air traffic control, passenger facilities such as restaurants and lounges, and emergency services. A military airport is known as an airbase in North American terminology (other countries may use the term airfield or air station in current parlance). The terms airfield and airstrip may also be used to refer to a facility that has nothing more than a runway. The term aerodrome refers to any surface used for take off or landing. The term airport refers to an aerodrome that is licensed by the responsible government organization (ie FAA, Transport Canada). Airports have to be maintained to higher safety standards. There is usually no minimum standards for a basic aerodrome.

Attributes

Airports vary in size, with smaller or less-developed airports often having only a single runway shorter than 1,000 m (3,300 ft). Larger airports for international flights generally have paved runways 2,000 m (6,600 ft) or longer. Many small airports have dirt, grass, or gravel runways, rather than asphalt or concrete. In the United States, the minimum dimensions for dry, hard landing fields are defined by the FAR Landing And Takeoff Field Lengths. These include considerations for safety margins during landing and takeoff. Typically heavier aircraft require longer runways. The longest public-use runway in the world is at Ulyanovsk-Vostochny International Airport, in Ulyanovsk, Russia. It has a length of 16,404ft. As of 2005, there were approximately 50,000 airports around the world, including 19,815 in the United States alone.

Airport structures

Russia Airports are divided into landside and airside areas. Landside areas include parking lots, tank farms and access roads. Airside areas include all areas accessible to aircraft, including runways, taxiways and ramps. Access from landside areas to airside areas is tightly controlled at most airports. Passengers on commercial flights access airside areas through terminals, where they can purchase tickets, clear security, check or claim luggage and board aircraft. The waiting areas which provide passenger access to aircraft are typically called concourses, although this term is often used interchangeably with terminal. The area where aircraft park next to a terminal to load passengers and baggage is known as a ramp. Parking areas for aircraft away from terminals are generally called aprons. Both large and small airports can be towered or uncontrolled, depending on air traffic density and available funds. Due to their high capacity and busy airspace, most international airports have air traffic control located on site.

International airports

Customs facilities for international flights define an international airport, and often require a more conspicuous level of physical security. International airports generally have a complex of buildings where passengers can embark on airliners, and where cargo can be stored and loaded. The largest international airports are often located next to freeways or are served by their own freeways. Often, traffic is fed into two access roads, designed as loops, one sitting on top of the other. One level is for departing passengers and the other is for arrivals. Many airports also have light rail lines or other mass transit systems directly connected to the main terminals.

Shops and food services

mass transits.]] Most international airports have shops and food courts. These services usually provide the passengers food and drinks before they board their flight. Many recognizable chain food restaurants have opened branches in large airports to serve often hungry passengers. London's Heathrow Airport, for example, is home to both a Harrods and a Hamleys Toy Shop, providing Duty Free for international passangers. International areas usually have a duty-free shop where travellers are not required to pay the usual duty fees on items. Larger airlines often operate member-only lounges for premium passengers. Airports have a captive audience, and consequently the prices charged for food is generally higher than are available elsewhere in the region. However, some airports now regulate food costs to keep them comparable to so-called "street prices". captive audience

Cargo and freight services

In addition to people, airports are responsible for moving large volumes of cargo around the clock. Cargo airlines often have their own on-site and adjecent infrastructure to rapidly transfer parcels between ground and air modes of transportation.

Support services

Aircraft maintenance, pilot services, aircraft rental, and hangar rental are most often performed by a fixed base operator (FBO). At major airports, particularly those used as hubs, airlines may operate their own support facilities.

History and development

The earliest airplane landing sites were simply open, grassy fields. The plane could approach at any angle that provided a favorable wind direction. Early airfields were often built for the purpose of entertainment. These aerodromes consisted of a grassy field, with hangar for storage and servicing of airplanes, and observation stands for the visitors. Increased aircraft traffic during World War I led to the construction of regular landing fields. Airplanes had to approach these from certain directions. This led to the development of aids for directing the approach and landing slope. Following the war, some of these military airfields added commercial facilities for handling passenger traffic. One of the earliest such fields was Le Bourget, near Paris. The first international airport to open was the Croydon Airport, in South London [http://www.sutton.gov.uk/leisure/heritage/croydon+airport.htm]. In 1922, the first permanent airport and commercial terminal solely for commercial aviation was built at Königsberg, Germany. The airports of this era used a paved "apron", which permitted night flying as well as landing heavier airplanes. The first lighting used on an airport was during the later part of the 1920s; in the 1930s approach lighting came into use. These indicated the proper direction and angle of descent. The colors and flash intervals of these lights became standardized under the ICAO. In the 1940s, the slope-line approach system was introduced. This consisted of two rows of lights that formed a funnel indicating an aircraft's position on the glideslope. Additional lights indicated incorrect altitude and direction. Following World War II, airport design began to become more sophisticated. Passenger buildings were being grouped together in an island, with runways arranged in groups about the terminal. This arrangement permitted expansion of the facilities. But it also meant that passengers had to travel further to reach their plane.

Airport designation and naming

Airports are uniquely represented by their IATA airport code and ICAO airport code. IATA airport codes are often, but not always, abbreviated forms of the common name of the airport, such as PHL for Philadelphia International Airport. Exceptions to this rule often occur when an airport's name is changed. O'Hare International Airport in Chicago, Illinois retains the IATA code ORD, from its former name of Orchard Field. In many countries airports are often named after a prominent national celebrity, commonly a politician, e.g. John F. Kennedy International Airport, Indira Gandhi International Airport or Charles de Gaulle International Airport.

Airport security

Airports are required to have safety precautions in most countries. Rules vary in different countries, but there are common elements worldwide. Airport security normally requires baggage checks, metal screenings of individual persons, and rules against any object that could be used as a weapon. Since the September 11, 2001 attacks, airport security has been dramatically increased worldwide.

Airport operations

Outside the terminal, there is a large team of people who work in concert to ensure aircraft can land, take off, and move around quickly and safely. These processes are largely invisible to passengers, but they can be extraordinarily complex at large airports.

Air traffic control

Air traffic control (or ATC) is system whereby ground-based controllers direct aircraft movements, usually via radio. This coordinated oversight facilitates safety and speed in complex operations where traffic moves in all three dimensions. Air traffic control responsibilities at airports are usually divided into two main areas: ground and tower. radio.]] Ground Control is responsible for directing all ground traffic in designated "movement areas," except the traffic on runways. This includes planes, baggage trains, snowplows, grass cutters, fuel trucks, and a wide array of other vehicles. Ground Control will instruct these vehicles on which taxiways to use, which runway they will use (in the case of planes), where they will park, and when it is safe to cross runways. When a plane is ready to take off it will stop short of the runway, at which point it will be turned over to Tower Control. After a plane has landed, it will depart the runway and be returned to Ground Control. Tower Control controls aircraft on the runway and in the controlled airspace immediately surrounding the airport. Tower controllers use radar to identify and accurately locate an aircraft's position in three-dimensional space. They coordinate the sequencing of aircraft in the traffic pattern and direct aircraft on how to safely join and leave the circuit. Aircraft which are only passing through the airspace must also contact Tower Control in order to be sure that they remain clear of other traffic and do not disrupt operations.

Traffic pattern

radar Smaller airports and military airfields use a traffic pattern to assure smooth traffic flow between departing and arriving aircraft. Generally, this pattern is a circuit consisting of five "legs" that form a rectangle (two legs and the runway form one side, with the remaining legs each form another side). Each leg is named (see diagram), and ATC directs pilots on how to join and leave the circuit. Traffic patterns are flown at one specific altitude, usually 1000 ft AGL. Most traffic patterns are left-handed, meaning all turns are made to the left. Right-handed patterns do exist, usually because of obstacles such as a mountain or to reduce noise for local residents. The predetermined circuit helps pilots look for other aircraft, and helps reduce the chance of a mid-air collision. At extremely large airports, a circuit is not usually used. Rather, ATC schedules aircraft for landing while they are still hours away from the airport. Airplanes can then take the most direct approach to the runway and land without worrying about interference from other aircraft. While this system keeps the airspace free and is simpler for pilots, it requires detailed knowledge of how aircraft are planning to use the airport ahead of time and is therefore only possible with large commercial airliners on pre-scheduled flights. The system has recently become so advanced that controllers can predict whether an aircraft will be delayed on landing before it even takes off; that aircraft can then be delayed on the ground, rather than wasting expensive fuel waiting in the air.

Navigational aids

Before takeoff, pilots usually check an Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) for information about airport conditions where they exist. The ATIS contains information about weather, which runway and traffic patterns are in use, and other information that pilots should be aware of. When flying, there are a number of aids available to pilots, though not all airports are equipped with them. A VASI helps pilots fly a perfect approach for landing once they have found the airport. Some airports are equipped with a VOR to help pilots find the direction to the airport, VORs are often accompanied by a DME to determine the distance to the airport. In poor weather, pilots will use an Instrument Landing System to find the runway and fly the correct approach, even if they cannot see the ground. Larger airports sometimes offer Precision Approach Radar (PAR). The aircraft's horizontal and vertical movement is tracked via radar, and the controller tells the pilot his position relative to the approach slope. Once the pilots can see the runway lights, they may continue with a visual landing.

Guidance signs

approach slope Airport guidance signs provide direction and information to taxiing aircraft and airport vehicles and assist in safe and expedient movement of aircraft. Smaller airports may have few or no signs, relying instead on airport diagrams and charts. There are two classes of signage at airports, with several types of each:

Operational guidance signs

- Location signs - yellow on black background. Identifies the runway or taxiway currently on or entering.
- Direction/Runway Exit signs - black on yellow. Identifies the intersecting taxiways the aircraft is approaching, with an arrow indicating the direction to turn.
- Other - Many airports use conventional traffic signs such as stop and yield signs throughout the airport.

Mandatory instruction signs

Madatory instruction signs are white on red. They show entrances to runways or critical areas. Vehicles and aircraft are required to stop at these signs until the control tower gives clearance to proceed.
- Runway signs - White on a red. These signs simply identify a runway intersection ahead.
- Frequency Change signs - Usually a stop sign and an instruction to change to another frequency. These signs are used at airports with different areas of ground control.
- Holding Position signs - A single solid yellow bar across a taxiway indicates a position where ground control may require a stop. If a two solid yellow bars and two dashed yellow bars are encountered, this indicates a holding position for a runway intersection ahead; runway holding lines must never be crossed without permission. At some airports, a line of red lights across a taxiway is used during low visibility operations to indicate holding positions.

Lighting

Many airports have lighting that help guide planes using the runways and taxiways at night or in rain or fog. On runways, green lights indicate the beginning of the runway for landing, while red lights indicate the end of the runway. Runway edge lighting is white lights spaced out on both sides of the runway, indicating the edge. Some airports have more complicated lighting on the runways including lights that run down the centerline of the runway and lights that help indicate the approach. Low-traffic airports may use Pilot Controlled Lighting to save electricity and staffing costs. Along taxiways, blue lights indicate the taxiway's edge, and some airports have embedded green lights that indicate the centerline.

Wind indicators

Planes take-off and land into the wind in order to achieve maximum performance. Wind speed and direction information is available through the ATIS or ATC, but pilots need instantaneous information during landing. For this purpose, a windsock is kept in view of the runway.

Safety management

Air safety is an important concern in the operation of an airport, and almost every airfield includes equipment and procedures for handling emergency situations. Commercial airfields include one or more emergency vehicles and their crew that are specially equipped for dealing with airfield accidents, crew and passenger extractions, and the hazards of highly flammable airplane fuel. The crews are also trained to deal with situations such as bomb threats, hijacking, and terrorist activities. Potential airfield hazards to aircraft include debris, nesting birds, and environmental conditions such as ice or snow. The fields must be kept clear of debris using cleaning equipment so that loose material doesn't become a projectile and enter an engine duct. Similar concerns apply to birds nesting near an airfield, and crews often need to discourage birds from taking up residence. In adverse weather conditions, ice and snow clearing equipment can be used to improve traction on the landing strip. For waiting aircraft, equipment is used to spray special deicing fluids on the wings. During the 1980s, a phenomenon known as microburst became a growing concern due to accidents caused by microburst wind shear. (For example, see Delta Air Lines Flight 191.) Microburst radar was developed as an aid to safety during landing, giving two to five minutes warning to aircraft in the vicinity of the field of an microburst event.

Environmental concerns

The traffic generated by airports both in the air and on the surface can be a major source of aviation noise and air pollution which may interrupt nearby residents' sleep or, in extreme cases, be harmful to their health . The construction of new airports, or addition of runways to existing airports, is often resisted by local residents because of the effect on the countryside, historical sites, local flora and fauna. As well, due to the risk of collision between birds and airplanes, large airports undertake population control programs where they frighten or shoot birds to ensure the safety of air travellers. The construction of airports has been known to change local weather patterns. For example, because they often flatten out large areas, they can be succeptible to fog in areas where fog rarely forms. In addition, because they generally replace trees and grass with pavement, they often change drainage patterns in agricultural areas, leading to more flooding, run-off and erosion in the surrounding land.

Military Airbase

An Airbase, sometimes referred to as a military airport or airfield, provides basing and support of military aircraft. Some airbases provide facilites similar to their civilian counterparts. For example, RAF Brize Norton in Oxfordshire, England has a terminal which caters to passengers for the Royal Air Force's scheduled Tristar flights to the Falkland Islands. A special military airfield is an Aircraft Carrier.

Aircraft Carriers

An aircraft carrier is a warship that functions as a floating airport for military aircraft. Aircraft carriers allow a naval force to project air power great distances without having to depend on local bases for land-based aircraft. After their development in World War II, aircraft carriers rapidly replaced the battleship as the centrepiece of a modern fleet. Unescorted carriers are considered vulnerable to missile or submarine attacks and therefore travel as part of a carrier battle group that includes a wide array of other ships with specific functions.

Airports in Entertainment

Airports have occasionally played major roles in motion pictures and television shows due to being transportation hubs, but also because of their unique characteristics. One such example of this is the movie The Terminal, a film about a man who becomes permanently grounded in an airport terminal and must survive only on the food and shelter provided by the airport. If nothing else, this movie demonstrates the sustaining properties of airport terminals. Movies such as Airplane!, Airport, Die Hard II, Jackie Brown, and Get Shorty also revolve around the unique culture of the major city airports.

Airport Directories

Each national aviation authority has its own system for pilots to be able to keep track of information about airports in their country.
- The United States uses the Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD), seven volumes that contain information such as elevation, airport lighting, runway information, communications, hours of operation, nearby NAVAIDs and much more.
- In Canada, a single publication, the Canada Flight Supplement (CFS) provides equivalent information.

External links

- [http://www.airnav.com/airports/ AirNav.com] - complete list of U.S. airports, with detailed airport information
- [http://www.pspda.com/efad.html eFAD] - the most powerful electronic airport directory (A/FD) on earth!
- [http://www.fly.faa.gov/flyfaa/usmap.jsp ATCSCC Real-time Airport Status page] - shows airport delay times for major U.S. airports
- [http://www.africaspotter.at.tt AFRICASPOTTER.at.tt] - Airports in Southern Africa
- [http://www.fortliberty.org/american-politics/airport-security.shtml U.S. airport security]
- [http://www.dft.gov.uk Department for Transport] (United Kingdom)
- [http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Government_Role/landing_nav/POL14.htm History of Aircraft Landing Aids]
- [http://www.numlink.com Airport satellite images] Category:Aviation Category:Transport infrastructure Category:Buildings and structures ko:공항 ms:Lapangan terbang ja:空港 simple:Airport th:สนามบิน

Orlando, Florida

] The city of Orlando is the county seat of Orange County, Florida. As of the 2000 census, the city had a total population of 185,951 (metropolitan area 1,644,561). A 2004 U.S. Census Estimates population count gave the city had a total population of 205,648 (metropolitan area nearly 1.8 million). It is the sixth-largest city in Florida, and its largest inland city. It is also at the head of the state's third-largest metropolitan area, behind Miami-Fort Lauderdale and Tampa-St. Petersburg. Additionally, Orlando is home to the second largest university in Florida, the University of Central Florida. The city is best known for the tourist attractions in the area, particularly the nearby Walt Disney World Resort, which is in the Reedy Creek Improvement District . Other area attractions include SeaWorld, Universal Orlando Resort and also the World's Largest McDonald's. Despite being far from the main tourist attractions, downtown Orlando has recently seen much redevelopment, with many more projects currently under construction or planned. One of the oldest attractions in this area is Gatorland. Orlando sees an estimated 52 million tourists a year, during its peak seasons. The city's nickname is "The City Beautiful", and its symbol is the fountain of Lake Eola. The current mayor is Buddy Dyer. (See a complete listing of the Mayors of Orlando.)

History

Some historians date Orlando's name to around 1836 when a soldier named Orlando Reeves allegedly died in the area, during the war against the Seminole Indian tribe. It seems, however, that Orlando Reeves (sometimes Rees) operated a sugar mill and plantation about 30 miles (50 km) to the north at Spring Garden in Volusia County, and pioneer settlers simply found his name carved into a tree and assumed it was a marker for a grave site. They thus referred to the area as "Orlando's grave" and later simply "Orlando." During the Second Seminole War, the U.S. Army established an outpost at Fort Gatlin, a few miles south of the modern downtown, in 1838. But, it was quickly abandoned when the war came to an end. The first permanent settler was cattleman Aaron Jernigan, who acquired land along Lake Holden by the terms of the Armed Occupation Act of 1842. But, most pioneers did not arrive until after the Third Seminole War in the 1850s. Orlando remained a rural backwater during the Civil War, and suffered greatly during the Federal Blockade. And, most of the early residents made their living by cattle ranching. But, the Reconstruction Era brought a population explosion. This led to the city's incorporation in 1875. The period from 1875 to 1895 is remembered as Orlando's "Gilded Era," when it became the hub of Florida's citrus industry. But, a great freeze in the latter year forced many owners to give up their independent groves, thus consolidating holdings in the hands of a few "citrus barons" which shifted operations south, primarily around Lake Wales in Polk County. The years between the Spanish-American War and World War I saw Orlando become a popular resort, as Florida's largest inland city. During World War II, a number of Army personnel were stationed at the Pine Castle AAF, now the site of Orlando International Airport. Some of these servicemen stayed in Orlando to settle and raise families. In 1956 the aerospace/defense company Martin Marietta (now Lockheed Martin) established a plant in Orlando. In addition, Orlando is close enough to Patrick Air Force Base, Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, and Kennedy Space Center for residents to commute to work from the city's suburbs. It also allows easy access to Port Canaveral, an important cruise ship terminal. Because of its proximity to the innovative "Space Coast", many high-tech companies have shifted to the Orlando area. The most critical event for Orlando's economy occurred in 1965 when Walt Disney announced the plans for Walt Disney World. The famous vacation resort opened in October, 1971, ushering in an explosive population and economic growth for the Orlando metropolitan area, which now encompasses Orange, Seminole, Osceola, and Lake counties. As a result, tourism became the centerpiece of the area's economy. In the hurricane season of 2004, Hurricanes Charley, Frances, and Jeanne battered the Orlando area, causing widespread damage and flooding and impeding tourism to the area.

Geography

flooding Orlando is located at 28°32'1" North, 81°22'33" West (28.533513, -81.375789). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 261.5 km² (100.9 mi²). 242.2 km² (93.5 mi²) of it is land and 19.3 km² (7.5 mi²) of it is water. The total area is 7.39% water. Orlando is rivaled only by the Twin Cities in the number of natural lakes to be found in its metropolitan area. The region Orlando occupies is generally low-lying, the only exception being minor sand hills formed by wave action in earlier geological eras when sea level was higher. These are found primarily in the western sections of the metropolitan area, especially in Lake County. The Orlando area is home to 100+ lakes, the largest of which are Lake Apopka, Eustis, Griffin, Harney, Harris, Jesup, Monroe, Sand Lake, Conway, and Tohopekaliga. The area is also very prone to sink-holes due to the large number of underground limestone caverns that are located in the area. Many of the lakes started as sink holes in recent geologic history.

Neighborhoods

The city of Orlando has 115 neighborhoods in the city limits, some of which are:

- Airport North
- Azalea Park (east portion is in unincorporated Orange County)
- Baldwin Park
- Callahan
- Central Business District
- College Park
- Colonialtown North
- Colonialtown South
- Conway (south portion is in unincorporated Orange County)
- Crescent Park
- Delaney Park
- Lake Davis / Greenwood
- Lake Eola Heights
- Metro North
- Metrowest
- Millenia
- North Orange
- Park Central
- Park Lake Highland
- Roosevelt Park
- Southwest
- Thornton Park
- West Colonial

Metropolitan area

In the Orlando area, like most metropolitan areas in Florida, the majority of the population lives outside the city proper. Orlando is the center of the Orlando-Daytona Beach-Melbourne metropolitan area. Nearby suburbs extend into the surrounding counties. Oviedo, in Seminole County, has been listed as one of the fastest growing cities in the United States. Clermont (Lake County) and Poinciana (Osceola) have also seen explosive growth. Deltona, in Volusia County, has grown so fast that, between 1990 and 2000, it became the largest city in that county. Cities such as Melbourne and Palm Bay on the Space Coast have also seen tremendous growth.

Climate

Orlando is considered to be in a subtropical climate zone. Summer high temperatures average in the low-to-mid 90s °F (mid-30s °C). Its proximity to the Atlantic Ocean in particular allows the Sea Breeze to cool it, but also keeping humidity high, keeping temperatures stable and making temperatures of 100 °F (38 °C) very rare. Its all-time record high temperature is 102 °F (39 °C), last achieved on May 31, 1945. 100 °F (38 °C) was last reached in 1998 for several days and peaking at 101 °F (38.3 °C) on July 2. Winter temperatures are typically mild, with the jet stream bringing in frequent cold fronts. High temperatures typically fluctuate anywhere from 55 °F (18 °C) to 80 °F (27 °C). Below-freezing temperatures are uncommon, with snow almost a generational event. Orlando's all-time record low is 19 °F (-7 °C), last achieved on January 20, 1985. The last recorded snow event was on December 23, 1989, when light snow and sleet fell and the high temperature only reached 37 °F (2.5 °C) on Christmas Day. January is the only month in which a temperature of 90°F (32°C) has not been recorded. The average annual rainfall for Orlando is 48.35 in (1198 mm). June through September is its "rainy season", accounted for by its location at the center of the Florida Peninsula, with the Gulf Breeze off the Gulf of Mexico and the Sea Breeze off the Atlantic Ocean colliding over the city in the summer, creating "pop-up" thunderstorms. December through May is considered Orlando's "dry season", with wildfires a danger particularly in May. While hurricanes are common in the area, they are often weaker and somewhat less destructive in Orlando than in coastal areas.

Economy

To no surprise, a large part of the Orlando area economy is involved in the tourist industry. Tourism surrounding Orlando is worth billions of dollars to the area's economy. Over 48 million visitors came to the Orlando region in 2004. The convention industry is also critical to the region's economy, due partly to the multitude of attractions available for all age ranges in the area. The Orange County Convention Center, expanded in 2004 to over two million square feet (200,000 m²) of exhibition space, is now the second-largest convention complex in the United States. The Orlando International Airport is a world-class facility, and one of the most heavily travelled airports in the world. The area's economy also has other industries apart from tourism, such as the presence of manufacturing in the region. Lockheed-Martin has a large manufacturing facility for aeronautical crafts and related high tech research due to Orlando's proximity to the NASA Kennedy Space Center. The area is also home to many computer software and hardware firms that located here in the 1970's and 1980's such as IBM. Another sector that is developing is the film, television, and electronic gaming industries, aided by the presence of Universal Studios, Disney-MGM Studios, Electronic Arts, Full Sail School, and other entertainment companies and schools. Numerous office complexes for large corporations have popped up along the Interstate 4 corridor north of Orlando, especially in Maitland, Lake Mary and Heathrow. The U.S. modeling, simulation, and training (MST) industry is centered around the Orlando region as well, with a particularly strong presence in the UCF Research Park. The diversifying economy has led to an incredibly low unemployment rate in Greater Orlando of 3.4% as of September 2005. (Source: [http://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/metro.pdf U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics], August 2005) The result is explosive growth that has led to urban sprawl in the surrounding area and skyrocketing housing prices. Housing prices in Greater Orlando have gone up 34% in one year, from an average of $182,000 in August 2004 to $245,000 in August 2005. (Source: [http://www.orlrealtor.com/Files/PDF/Housingtrendssummary.pdf Orlando Regional Realtor Association]) Companies that have a their corporate headquarters or a major presence in the area:
- Adventist Healthcare System
- AirTran
- Cendant Timeshare Resort Group/Fairfield Resorts
- CNL Financial Group
- Commerical Net Lease Realty
- Darden Restaurants, Inc., parent company of Olive Garden, Red Lobster, and Bahama Breeze
- Electronic Arts
- Gaylord Entertainment
- Hard Rock Cafe
- Hilton Grand Vacations Club
- Hughes Supply Incorporated
- Lockheed-Martin
- Loews Hotels
- Luctor International, parent company of Van Gogh Vodka and Van Gogh Gin
- Marriott Vacation Club International
- NBC Universal
- Planet Hollywood
- Siemens AG, Siemens Westinghouse
- Starwood Vacation Ownership
- SunTrust Bank
- Tavistock Group
- T.G. Lee Dairy
- Trustreet Properties
- Tupperware Corp.
- The Walt Disney Company

Transportation

Air

Orlando is served primarily by Orlando International Airport, though nearby Orlando Sanford International Airport also serves the area. Orlando Executive Airport is used for charter flights and General Aviation.

Roads

Its major freeway is Interstate 4, which crosses Florida's Turnpike southwest of Downtown Orlando. It is also served by the toll roads of the Orlando-Orange County Expressway Authority, particularly the East-West Expressway (SR 408), which crosses I-4 downtown. The East West Expressway (SR 408) is undergoing major construction with the addition of lanes, concrete barrier walls, sound walls, and a better scenic view. This project begun in 2005 and is not yet complete as of right now.

Rail

The Orlando area is served by one through railroad, CSX's A line (formerly the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad's main line), and some spurs, mostly operated by the Florida Central Railroad. Amtrak passenger service runs along the CSX A line. See also a map of these railroads. In 2005 Federal and state funding was granted for the establishment of a commuter rail service to operate on the CSX A line tracks between Deltona and Poinciana, passing through the downtown area and surrounding urban neighborhoods along the way. The service is expected to substantially reduce traffic congestion along the I-4 corridor, especially between downtown Orlando and the suburban communities in Seminole and Volusia Counties. The Federal and state funds would cover approximately 80% of the estimated $400 million cost for track modifications and construction of stations along the route. Pending approval by the county governments (Volusia, Seminole, Orange and Osceola) involved and the set aside of matching funds, the line is projected to begin operations in 2009. The following major railroad stations have existed in Orlando:
- Amtrak Orlando station (originally built by ACL to replace Church Street Station, the only one still in use)
- Atlantic Coast Line Railroad Orlando station (now Church Street Station, a tourist attraction)
- Seaboard Air Line Railroad Orlando station (Central Avenue Station)

Buses

Orlando is served by Lynx, which runs bus service in the tri-county area (Osceola-Orange-Seminole).

Education

Public Education is handled by Orange County Public Schools. Some of the larger private schools include Trinity Preparatory School, Lake Highland Preparatory School, Bishop Moore High School, New School of Orlando, Orlando Christian Academy, and Forest Lake Academy.

Area institutions of higher education

- Barry University's law school
- Brevard Community College (in nearby Brevard County)
- DeVry University, Orlando campus
- Florida A&M University's law school
- Florida Institute of Technology, Orlando campus
- Florida Hospital College of Health Sciences
- Florida Metropolitan University, Orlando campus
- Full Sail Real World Education (in Winter Park)
- International Academy of Design and Technology
- Nova Southeastern University, Orlando campus
- Reformed Theological Seminary, Orlando campus
- Rollins College (in Winter Park)
- Seminole Community College (in Sanford)
- Stetson University (in Deland)
- University of Central Florida
- University of Phoenix, Orlando campus
- Valencia Community College

Demographics

As of the census of 2000, there are 185,951 people, 80,883 households, and 42,382 families residing in the city. The population density is 767.9/km² (1,988.9/mi²). There are 88,486 housing units at an average density of 365.4/km² (946.4/mi²). The racial makeup of the city is 53.10% White, 18.85% African American, 2.68% Asian, 0.34% Native American, 0.08% Pacific Islander, 5.41% from other races, and 2.54% from two or more races. 31.48% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race. The city has large Puerto Rican, Dominican and Venezuelan communities. There are 80,883 households out of which 24.5% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 32.4% are married couples living together, 15.4% have a female householder with no husband present, and 47.6% are non-families. 35.0% of all households are made up of individuals and 8.5% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.25 and the average family size is 2.97. In the city the population is spread out with 22.0% under the age of 18, 10.7% from 18 to 24, 37.3% from 25 to 44, 18.6% from 45 to 64, and 11.3% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 33 years. For every 100 females there are 94.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 91.3 males. The median income for a household in the city is $35,732, and the median income for a family is $40,648. Males have a median income of $30,866 versus $25,267 for females. The per capita income for the city is $21,216. 15.9% of the population and 13.3% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 27.0% of those under the age of 18 and 12.6% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

Area attractions

For more tourist information, see the Wikitravel article. Also contact:
- Orlando/Orange County Convention & Visitors Bureau. 8723 International Drive. (800) 972-3304. The official sales and marketing organization for the Orlando and Orange County area. http://www.orlandoinfo.com. The Orlando area is home to a wide variety of tourist attractions, including the Walt Disney World resort, SeaWorld Orlando, and Universal Orlando Resort. The Walt Disney World resort is the area's largest attraction with its many facets such as the Magic Kingdom, Epcot, Disney-MGM Studios, Disney's Animal Kingdom, Typhoon Lagoon, Blizzard Beach, and Downtown Disney. SeaWorld Orlando is a large adventure park that features numerous zoological displays and marine animals alongside an amusement park with roller coasters and water park. Universal Orlando, like Walt Disney World, is a multi-faceted resort comprised of Universal Studios Florida, CityWalk, and Islands of Adventure theme park. Other attractions in the Orlando area includes:
- Arboretum of the University of Central Florida
- Blue Spring State Park, which is the winter home of large numbers of Florida Manatees that come upstream from the St. Johns River to bask in the warm 72 °F (22 °C) waters of the springs. Canoeing, swimming and fishing are popular activities at Blue Springs.
- Central Florida Zoological Park, located in Sanford on Lake Monroe. This 100 acre (400,000 m²) zoo is home to a butterfly garden, herpetarium, and numerous tropical animals. This zoo originally started as a collection in the Sanford Fire Department, but grew into a regional zoo in 1975. It is currently in the planning stages of expansion and renaming the facility to "Zoo Orlando at Sanford".
- Church Street Station, a multi-level shopping mall and entertainment center that features specialty shops, restaurants, nightclubs, and bars.
- Cirque du Soleil, in Downtown Disney West Side, features its renowned blend of acrobatics and special effects with more than 70 artists from around the globe performing in a custom-designed, 1,671-seat theater.
- Cornell Fine Arts Museum, which is situated on the campus of Rollins College, this free museum features significant loans, recent acquisitions, and items from the Cornell's renowned permanent collection.
- Cypress Gardens Adventure Park
- Discovery Cove, part of the SeaWorld Adventure Park complex. This attraction features tropical fish in a coral reef, snorkeling with stingrays, and interacting with birds in an aviary, as well as swimming and playing with dolphins during a half-hour dolphin encounter.
- Gatorland is home to thousands of alligators and crocodiles. A few of Gatorland's residents have made wrangling appearances in movies, television shows and commercial spots. The 54 year old park combines a petting zoo, bird sanctuary, mini-water park, eco-tour and outdoor entertainment, including daily alligator wrestling.
- Hard Rock Live & Hotel is the Hard Rock Café chain's featured location in Orlando. It features a concert venue and large restaurant with typical rock style memorabilia. The Hard Rock Hotel is a featured resort hotel with a California-style restaurant called The Kitchen.
- International Trolley and Train Museum features 14 model railroad trains with sound and lighting traveling through an indoor garden with 12 foot (4 m) high mountains, waterfalls, and more than 30 trestles and tunnels. Also on display are toy trains from the 1920s to the present. Visitors can catch a ride in a California Victorian Style half open/half closed trolley or the 5/8 replica of an 1880 locomotive (a Mason Bogey) with its passenger cars.
- Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex is 45 minutes from Orlando and south of Daytona Beach. Visitors can tour launch areas, see giant rockets, "train" in spaceflight simulators, and much more. Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex is open every day except Christmas and certain launch days. Apart from the Astronaut Hall of Fame, Space Center bus tours run every 15 minutes with stops at an observation gantry and the Apollo / Saturn V Center. Other guided tours include NASA Up Close, Cape Canaveral: Then and Now, and Lunch With An Astronaut. Combo tickets offer maximum access admission, plus one guided tour.
- Jack Kerouac residence
- Harry P. Leu Gardens, which is an inner city oasis covering 50 acres (20,000 m²) and features colorful annuals, palms, an orchid house, a floral clock and a butterfly garden.
- World's Largest Entertainment McDonald's® & PlayPlace, located on the corner of Sand Lake Rd. & International Dr. This unique McDonald's looks like a fry box from the exterior. The interior features an arcade with 60+ games with prize redemption, a 1950's room, a waterfall and a gift shop. Also, try the Bistro Gourmet at McDonald's chef prepared food, like Panini & Deli sandwiches, pasta, soup, desserts, hand-dipped ice cream, plus all your McDonald's favorites.
- Medieval Times Dinner & Tournament, located in Kissimmee, Florida. Six brave knights on horseback compete in tournament games, jousting, and sword fighting while guest dine on a medieval banquet.
- Morse Museum of American Art, which houses a permanent Tiffany collection featuring an impressive array of Tiffany glass, an exhibit on the Tiffany home, and American paintings from the 19th century.
- Old Town features 8 restaurants, 15 amusement park rides and 75 shops along its brick-lined streets. Classic car shows every Friday and Saturday feature hundreds of vintage automobiles. Admission and parking are free.
- Orange County Regional History Center
- Orlando Museum of Art, which has ongoing exhibitions of American portraits and landscapes, American impressionist works, and art of the ancient Americas.
- Orlando Science Center, a 207,000 square foot (19,000 m²) hands-on learning center with hundreds of interactive exhibits for visitors of all ages. Images surround visitors on the giant screen of the Dr. Phillips CineDome. Other attractions include the Body Zone, teaching health and fitness, as well as an observatory.
- Ripley's Believe It or Not! Orlando Odditorium is located in a building artfully constructed to appear as if it were collapsing to one side, along with a sly reference to central Florida's infamous sinkholes. Explore artifacts, collections, weird art/hobbies and interactive exhibits in 16 odd galleries. For more than 40 years, Robert Ripley traveled the globe collecting the unbelievable, inexplicable, and one-of-a-kind. His collections are housed in 27 museums in 10 countries.
- Wekiwa Springs State Park, which comprises around 700 acres (2.8 km²) of wild Florida. The springs pump out 42 million gallons of crystal clear water a day. Popular activities at the park include canoeing, swimming, picnicking and fishing.
- World of Orchids, featuring thousands of blooms in an enclosed tropical rainforest. World of Orchids is a working greenhouse shipping orchids and other plants nationwide. A greenhouse covers nearly an acre (4,000 m²), and in this controlled climate of warm, humid air some 1,000 orchids are displayed in a natural jungle setting, with streams, waterfalls, and squawking parrots. World of Orchids also has a 1,000 foot (300 m) long boardwalk meandering off into nearby wetlands. Admission is free.

Sports

World of Orchids team based in Orlando.]] Orlando is home to the Orlando Magic, an NBA pro basketball franchise that plays at the TD Waterhouse Centre in downtown Orlando. The team made it to the NBA Finals in 1995. The Orlando Predators of the Arena Football League also play at the TD Waterhouse Centre. Since joining the league in 1991, they have become one of the legendary franchises in the young league, having a historic rivalry with the Tampa Bay Storm, two ArenaBowl titles (1998 and 2000), and several historic moments including the league's only shutout to date and a procession called the Miracle Minute where they scored two touchdowns with two-point conversions and forced a safety to come from behind in the final minute of a game to win. Orlando was a stronghold of minor-league ice hockey throughout the 1990's, being home of the Orlando Solar Bears of the now-defunct International Hockey League. Historically successful, they won the Turner Cup championship in 2001 to end the IHL's final season. In 2002, the Atlantic Coast Hockey League formed with Orlando forming one of the charter franchises, the Orlando Seals, which won their Commissioner's Cup in 2003. They moved to the World Hockey Association 2 in 2003, then the Southern Professional Hockey League in 2004. The City of Orlando revoked their lease for the TD Waterhouse Centre, forcing them to sit out the 2004-05 season. They moved to Kissimmee and became the Florida Seals in November 2004. The Citrus Bowl is the home of the Capital One Bowl (formerly the Florida Citrus Bowl) and the Champs Sports Bowl (formerly the Tangerine Bowl). It also hosts regular-season football games for the University of Central Florida (NCAA Division I-A) and Jones High School, as well as the annual Florida Classic played between the NCAA Division I-AA Football teams from Florida A&M University and Bethune-Cookman College. It hosted soccer games for the FIFA World Cup '94 and the 1996 Summer Olympics when each were hosted by the United States. The Orlando Renegades were a USFL team playing at the Citrus Bowl in 1985. They folded with the league in 1986. The Orlando Thunder were a charter team in the World League of American Football in 1991 and 1992. They lost the World Bowl to the Sacramento Surge in 1992. Like all other American teams, it was dropped in the World League reorganization of 1995. The Orlando Rage were a member of the XFL that played at the Citrus Bowl, and only played in 2001. That team has since been revived in the minor-league Southern States Football League (SSFL). The Orlando Sundogs were a minor-league soccer team in the A-League that played in the Citrus Bowl. They were disbanded in 1997 after only playing one year. Presently, two lower-division soccer teams call Orlando home: the Premier Development League's (PDL) Central Florida Kraze, and Ajax Orlando. The Kraze won the PDL Championship in 2004, while Ajax (pronounced EYE-acks) is the only Amercian subsidiary of global soccer power Ajax Amsterdam of the Dutch Eredivisie (professional soccer league). Tinker Field, named for baseball hall-of-famer Joe Tinker, is a historic baseball stadium next to the Citrus Bowl, currently out of use. It was formerly the Spring Training home of the Minnesota Twins (and the Washington Nationals/Senators before them) and AA Southern League affiliates of the Twins, Chicago Cubs and Tampa Bay Devil Rays.

Other

Trivial facts

- ZIP codes for Orlando are in the range from 32801 to 32899.

Famous people

Among the famous people and groups connected to Orlando are:

- Michelle Akers
- Michael Andrew
- Chucky Atkins
- Backstreet Boys
- Wayne Brady
- Malcolm Bricklin
- Delta Burke
- Lee Corso
- Creed
- Daunte Culpepper
- Johnny Damon
- Chris DiMarco

- Marquis Daniels
- Buddy Ebsen
- John Frame
- Zack Greinke
- Cheryl Hines
- Billy Howerdel
- Zora Neale Hurston
- Davey Johnson
- Tracy McGrady
- Mandy Moore
- Marilyn Manson
- Matchbox Twenty
- Shaquille O'Neal

- Tari Phillips
- Orlando Reeves
- Warren Sapp
- R. C. Sproul
- Seven Mary Three
- Kirsten Storms
- NSYNC
- Wesley Snipes
- Amare Stoudemire
- Joe Tinker
- Trivium
- Tiger Woods

- John W. Young

External links

- [http://www.cityoforlando.net/ City of Orlando]
- [http://www.eola.net/ Eola.net] Orlando's community site
- [http://www.orlando-villa-guide.com/ Orlando City Guide]
- [http://www.theorlandoguide.com/ Orlando Guide]

Category:Cities in Florida Category:Orange County, Florida
- ja:オーランド simple:Orlando, Florida

Acre

:This article is about the unit of measure known as the acre. For other definitions, see Acre (disambiguation). An acre is an English unit of area. It is most frequently used to describe areas of land.

UK definition

The UK has a definition of the acre in [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si1995/Uksi_19951804_en_2.htm The Units of Measurement Regulations 1995] as 4,046.856422 4 m². This is equivalent to 43,560 square feet using the definition of foot in the same source.

US definition

The US has a definition of the acre in [http://ts.nist.gov/ts/htdocs/230/235/appxc/appxc.htm NIST Handbook 44] as 43,560 square feet. However, the US has two definitions of foot (international foot and survey foot) and thus two definitions of acre:
- The international acre is 4,046.856422 4 m². This is based on international foot of 0.3048 m.
- The US survey acre is 4,046.87261 m². This is based on the US survey foot of 1200/3937 m.

Related linear measurements

Two obsolete, but related, measurements are the acre's length and the acre's breadth.
- 1 acre's length = 1 furlong, 40 poles, or 220 yards
- 1 acre's breadth = 1 chain, 4 poles, or 22 yards

Conversion

An international acre is equivalent to exactly:
- 4 046.856 422 4 m² (SI unit)
- 40.468 564 224 a,
- 0.404 685 642 24 ha,
- 43 560 square feet,
- 4840 square yards,
- 160 square rods,
- 4 rood,
- 1/640 square mile,
- a 10:1 rectangle of 1 furlong by 1 chain.
- 10 square chains. An acre is equivalent to approximately:
- a square of side 208.71 feet (63.61 metres). One square mile is 640 acres. A square parcel of land ¼ mile wide is 40 acres. A square parcel of land ½ mile on a side is 160 acres, the usual land tract under the Homestead Act in the United States. This results in common field lengths of ½ mile, with every rod in width equal to one acre. An American Football field covers approximately 1.32 acres.

History

The acre was selected as approximately the amount of land tillable by one man behind an ox in one day. This explains its rectangular definition one-chain by one-furlong parcel of land; a long narrow strip of land is more efficient to plough than a square plot, since the plough does not have to be turned so often. Statutory values were enacted in England by acts of
- Edward I,
- Edward III,
- Henry VIII,
- George IV and
- Victoria - the British "Weights and Measures Act" of 1878 defined it as containing 4840 square yards.

External links

- [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si1995/Uksi_19951804_en_2.htm The Units of Measurement Regulations 1995]
- [http://ts.nist.gov/ts/htdocs/230/235/appxc/appxc.htm NIST Handbook 44] Category:Units of area Category:Imperial units Category:Customary units in the United States Category:Real estate ja:エーカー

KM

KM, Km, or km may stand for:
- Khmer language (ISO 639 alpha-2, km)
- Kilometre
- Kinemantra Meditation
- Knowledge management
- KM programming language
- KM Culture, Korean Movie Maker.
- Kia Motors, Korean Automobile Manufacturer.
- Comoros (ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code)
- the Michaelis-Menten constant K_m, see Michaelis-Menten kinetics
- Kamenz (district), Germany (license plate indication)
- Messenia, Greece (license plate indication)
- Air Malta (IATA code)
- Clan Knightmare, ]km[ Gaming clan tag
- Kelley-Morse set theory ko:KM ja:KM

United States Postal Service

:This article describes the United States Postal Service. For the band named The Postal Service see The Postal Service. The United States Postal Service (USPS) is an agency of the United States government responsible for providing postal service in the United States; it is generally referred to within the United States as "the post office." The postal service was created under Benjamin Franklin on July 26, 1775 by decree of the Second Continental Congress. Based on a clause in the United States Constitution empowering Congress "To establish Post Offices and post Roads," it became the Post Office Department in 1792. In 1971, the department was reorganized as a quasi-independent agency of the federal government and acquired its present name. The USPS is the third-largest employer in the United States (after the United States Department of Defense and Walmart), and operates the largest civilian vehicle fleet in the world, with an estimated 170,000 vehicles, the majority of which are the easily identified "mail trucks," as shown in the pictures to the right. Some rural mail carriers use personal vehicles. Competition from e-mail and private operations such as United Parcel Service, FedEx, and DHL has forced USPS to adjust its business strategy and to modernize its products and services. The Department of Defense and the USPS jointly operate a postal system to deliver mail for the military known as the Army/Air Force Post Office and the Fleet Post Office.
Governance and organization
The USPS is headed by a Board of Governors appointed by the President and confirmed by the US Senate. The Board has a similar role to a corporate board of directors, setting policy and procedure and postal rates for services rendered. The United States Postmaster General, formerly appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate, but now appointed by the board of governors, serves as Chief Operating Officer and oversees the day to day activities of the service. The USPS is often mistaken for a government-owned corporation (e.g. Amtrak), but is legally defined as an "independent establishment of the executive branch of the Government of the United States," as it is wholly owned by the government and controlled indirectly by the President. As a government agency, it has many special privileges, including sovereign immunity, eminent domain powers, powers to negotiate postal treaties with foreign nations, and an exclusive legal right to deliver first-class and third-class mail. The USPS has both a commercial (.com) and governmental (.gov) top level domain, but chooses to use the .com domain as its primary address, which causes its Internet presence to resemble that of a corporation more than that of a government agency.
Monopoly status
The USPS enjoys a government monopoly with respect to first-class and third-class letter delivery under the authority of the Private Express Statutes. The USPS says that these statutes were enacted by Congress "to provide for an economically sound postal system that could afford to deliver letters between any two locations, however remote." In effect, those who mail letters to a near location are subsidizing those who are mailing letters to distant locations. The USPS enjoys monopoly status in that it possesses the exclusive permission under federal law to deliver first and third class mail. However, an exception to private carriers is made with regard to "extremely urgent letters" as long as the private carrier charges at least $3 or twice the U.S. postage, whichever is greater (other stipulations, such as maximum delivery time, apply as well); or, alternatively, it may be delivered for free. The USPS also enjoys a monopoly privilege in placing mail into standardized mailboxes marked "U.S. Mail." Hence, private carriers must deliver packages directly to the recipient, leave them in the open near the recipient's front door, or place them in a special box dedicated solely to that carrier (a technique commonly used by small courier and messenger services). In the 1840s Lysander Spooner started the commercially successful American Letter Mail Company which competed with the United States Post Office by providing lower rates. He was successfully challenged with legal measures by the U.S. government and exhausted his resources trying to defend what he believed to be his right to compete. The 37 cents (USD) required by the USPS to deliver a letter in the U.S. compares favorably with other industrialized countries, such as those of the European Union, where the postage for an ordinary domestic first-class letter is nearly twice that much. It is debatable whether any meaningful competition for ordinary letter delivery would develop in the absence of a legal monopoly. In countries that have recently undergone postal service privatization, no meaningful competition for first-class letter delivery has materialized and the overall cost of services to consumers has risen (this does not take into account tax burden relief by diminished subsidies). As it continues to lose package services market share to private competitors, the USPS and its organizational structure face an uncertain future. As an affiliate of the federal government, the USPS is not required to pay any of the federal or state income taxes that regular businesses pay. Since the USPS is also directed by law to break even in the long run, there is currently not much tax revenue lost due to this tax exemption. However there is a possibility that a private alternatives to the USPS monopoly on normal letter delivery could provide better service at a lower cost, as well as be profitable and net tax contributors (Private competitors in package delivery have become profitable even with the tax burden placed on them and now dominate the market). [http://www.fee.org/publications/the-freeman/article.asp?aid=3976] Therefore, some critics view the current tax exemption as a subsidy provided by the government to the USPS.
Subsidized services
The USPS claims to have operated "in a businesslike manner without taxpayer support" since its spinoff from the cabinet on July 1, 1971 following the passage of the Postal Reorganization Act of 1970. It does, however, receive compensation from taxpayer funds for certain services that it is mandated to provide for free or at a discount, including free mail for the blind, military mail, nonprofit mail and overseas ballots. $36 million in such compensation was paid for fiscal 2004. In addition, Congress appropriated the USPS a total of $762 million for biohazard decontamination and detection equipment in response to the 2001 anthrax attacks.
Types of postal facilities
Although its customer service centers are called post offices in regular speech, the USPS recognizes several types of postal facilities, including the following:
- A main post office, formerly known as a general post office, is the primary postal facility in a community.
- A station or post office station is a postal facility that is not the main post office, but that is within the corporate limits of the community.
- A branch or post office branch is a postal facility that is not the main post office and that is outside the corporate limits of the community.
- A classified unit is a station or branch operated by USPS employees in a facility owned or leased by the USPS.
- A contract postal unit is a station or branch operated by a contractor, typically in a store or other place of business.
- A community post office (CPO) is a contract postal unit providing services in a small community in which other types of post office facilites have been discontinued.
- A finance unit is a station or branch that provides window services and accepts mail, but does not provide delivery.
- A processing and distribution center (P&DC) or processing and distribution facility (formerly known as a General Mail Facility) is a central mail facility that processes and dispatches incoming and outgoing mail to and from a designated service area.
- A sectional center facility is a P&DC for a designated geographical area defined by one or more three-digit ZIP code prefixes. While common usage refers to all types of postal facilities as "substations," the USPS Glossary of Postal Terms does not define or even list that word. Temporary stations are often set up for applying pictorial cancellations.
Addressing envelopes
For any letter addressed within the United States, the USPS requires two things on the envelope. The first is the address of the recipient, to be placed in the center of the envelope. It is sometimes required to put the name of the addressee above the address. Another optional addition to the address is a ZIP+4 code. The second is some means of indicating that postage has been paid, usually a stamp, but perhaps a meter label, or in certain cases such as members of Congress a signature or other writing indicating that the sender has franking privileges. First-class mail costs 37¢ upwards, depending on the weight of the letter and the class, and the indicia is supposed to be placed in the upper-right corner. A third, and optional (but strongly suggested) addition is a return address. This is the address you wish the recipient to respond to, and, if necessary, the letter to be returned to if delivery fails. It is usually placed in the upper-left corner or occasionally in the back (though the latter is standard in some countries). Undeliverable mails that cannot be readily returned, including those without return addresses, are treated as dead mails at a Mail Recovery Center in Atlanta, Georgia or Saint Paul, Minnesota. ;The formatting of the address is as follows: :Line 1: Name of recipient :Line 2: Street address or P.O. Box :Line 3: City (ISO 3166-2:US code or APO/FPO code) and ZIP+4 code ;Example: :Mr. John Doe :1111 JOHNSON ST :NEW YORK NY 10036-4658 The USPS maintains [http://www.usps.com/ncsc/lookups/usps_abbreviations.htm a list of proper abbreviations]. The formatting of a return address is identical. A common myth is that a comma is required after the city name, but this is not true. The Post Office recommends use of all upper case block letters using the appropriate formats and abbreviations and leaving out all punctuation except for the hyphen in the ZIP+4 code to ease automated address reading and speed processing, particularly for handwritten addresses; if the address is unusually formatted or illegible enough, it will require hand-processing, delaying that particular item. The USPS publishes the entirety of their [http://pe.usps.gov/text/pub28/welcome.htm postal addressing standards].
Mail sorting
Processing of standard sized envelopes and cards is highly automated, including reading of handwritten addresses. Mail from individual customers and public postboxes is collected by mail carriers into plastic tubs. The tubs are taken to a Processing and Distribution Center and emptied into hampers which are then automatically dumped into a Dual Pass Rough Cull System (DPRCS). As mail travels through the DPRCS, large items, such as packages and mail bundles, are removed from the stream. As the remaining mail enters the first machine for processing standard mail, the Advanced Facer-Canceler System (AFCS), pieces that passed through the DPRCS but do not conform to physical dimensions for processing in the AFCS (i.e. large envelopes or overstuffed standard envelopes) are automatically diverted from the stream. Mail removed from the DPRCS and AFCS is manually processed or sent to parcel sorting machines. In contrast to the previous system, which merely canceled and postmarked the upper right corner of the envelope, thereby missing any stamps which were inappropriately placed, the AFCS locates indicia (stamp or metered postage mark), regardless of the orientation of the mail as it enters the machine, and cancels it by applying a postmark. Detection of indicia enables the AFCS to determine the orientation of each mailpiece and sort it accordingly, rotating pieces as necessary so all mail is sorted right-side up and faced in the same direction in each output bin. Mail is output by the machine into three categories: mail already bar-coded and addressed (such as business reply envelopes and cards), mail with machine printed (typed) addresses, and mail with handwritten addresses. Additionally, machines with a recent Optical Character Recognition (OCR) upgrade have the capability to read the address information, including handwritten, and sort the mail based on local or outgoing ZIP codes. Mail with typed addresses goes to a Multiline Optical Character Reader (MLOCR) which reads the ZIP Code and address information and prints the appropriate bar code onto the envelope. Mail (actually the scanned image of the mail) with handwritten addresses (and machine-printed ones that aren't easily recognized) goes to the Remote Bar Coding System, a highly advanced scanning system with a state of the art neural net processor which is highly effective at correctly reading almost all addresses, no matter how badly written. It also corrects spelling errors and, where there is an error, omission, or conflict in the written address, identifies the most likely correct address. When it has decided on a correct address, it prints the appropriate bar code onto the envelopes, similarly to the MLOCR system. RBCS also has facilities in place, called Remote Encoding Centers that have humans look at images of mail pieces and enter the address data. The address data is associated with the image via an ID Tag, a fluorescent code printed by mail processing equipment on the back of mail pieces. Mail with addresses which cannot be resolved by the automated system are separated for human intervention. If a local postal worker can read the address, the appropriate bar code is printed onto the item. If not, the item is sent to one of three Mail Recovery Centers in the United States (formerly known as Dead Letter Offices, originated by Benjamin Franklin in the 1770s) where it receives more intense scrutiny, including being opened to determine if any of the contents are a clue. If no valid address can be determined, the items are held for 90 days in case of inquiry by the customer; and if they are not claimed then they are destroyed. Once the mail is bar coded, it is automatically sorted into destination postal stations. Items for local delivery are retained in the postal station while other items are trucked to either the appropriate station if it is within approximately 200 miles, or the airport for transport to more distant destinations. Mail is flown, usually as baggage on commercial airlines, to the airport nearest the destination station, then at a nearby processing center the mail is once again read by a Delivery Bar Code System which sorts the items into their local destinations, including grouping them by individual mail carrier. After the September 11, 2001 attacks, only letter-sized mail has been flown on passenger airlines. Packages are solely transported via cargo carriers, most notably FedEx.
Major products and services

First Class Mail
The normal mail service used by individuals and business sending a small amount of mail. One rate regardless of distance.
- Letters: The cost to send a letter weighing up to 1 ounce (28 g) is currently 37 cents, increasing to 39 cents on January 8, 2006.
- Each additional ounce is an additional 23 cents, up to 13 ounces.
- Sending a postcard costs 23 cents.
- Packages weighing up to 13 ounces (369 g) can be sent.
- Best effort delivery including return service for undeliverable mail.
- Forwarding service: With a valid change of address on file, mail coming to the old address will be sent to the new address for up to 12 months.
- Available to anyone.
- Recommendations (but no enforced rules) about mailpiece quality and addressing.
- Mail is picked up at customer's house or place of business, or can be dropped in any public mail collection box.
- Delivery to every address in the United States, except some small towns with no delivery to addresses within a quarter mile (400 m) of the post office. Post offices in some rural small towns without street deliveries require post office box numbers and addressees in these towns are eligible for fee-free post office boxes.
Standard Mail
Used mainly for businesses.
- Minimum 200 pieces per mailing
- Must weigh less than 16 ounces (454 g)
- No return service unless requested (an additional fee is charged for return service)
- Not for personal correspondence, letters, bills, or statements
- Annual fee
Bulk Mail
Used for businesses to send large quantities of mail.
- Can be First Class or Standard Mail
- Discounted rates
- Permit required
- Enforced rules about mailpiece quality and addressing.
- May require additional work by the sender, such as pre-sorting by ZIP Code.
- Mail must usually be brought to a postal facility.
Parcel Post
Used to send packages weighing up to 70 pounds (31.75 kg)
- Rates based on distance, weight, and shape
- Delivery to every address in the United States
Media Mail
Formerly (and colloquially, still) known as "Book Rate," Media Mail is used to send books, printed materials, sound recordings, videotapes, CD-ROMs, diskettes, and similar, but cannot contain advertising. Maximum weight is 70 pounds (31.75 kg).
- Delivery standards are 5-8 business days
- Rates based on weight
- Much cheaper than Parcel Post, but sometimes slower
Library mail
Same as Media Mail, but receives an additional discount and may be used only for books or recordings being sent to or from a public library, museum or academic institution.
Priority Mail
Priority Mail is an expedited mail service with a few additional features.
- Average delivery time is 2-3 days (but this is NOT guaranteed, may take longer)
- Flat rate envelopes and boxes available (one rate for whatever you put in the envelope, though the envelope must seal on its own)
- Packages up to 70 pounds (31.75 kg).
- Label can be printed online
- Delivery to every address in the United States
Express Mail
Express Mail is the fastest mail service.
- Typically overnight or second-day delivery, including Sundays and holidays
- Flat rate envelope available
- Packages up to 50 pounds (22.7 kg)
- Delivery to most addresses in the United States
- Guaranteed on-time delivery or the postage is refunded subject to conditions
Postal Money orders

- Provide a safe alternative to sending cash through the mail
- Money orders are cashable only by the recipient, just like a bank check. One of the reasons for the growing popularity of money orders is that, unlike a personal bank check, they are pre-paid and therefore cannot bounce.
Global services
Airmail, Global Priority, Global Express, and Global Express Guaranteed Mail are offered to ship mail and packages to almost every country and territory on the globe.
Airline and rail division
The United States Postal Service does not directly own or operate any aircraft or trains. The mail and packages are flown on airlines with which they have a contractual agreement. The contracts change periodically. Depending on the contract, you may see aircraft painted with the USPS paint scheme. Contract airlines have included: Emery Worldwide, Ryan International, Federal Express, Rhoades Aviation, and Express 1 International. The Postal Service also contracts with the National Railroad Passenger Corporation, or Amtrak to carry some mail between certain cities such as Chicago, Illinois and Minneapolis-St. Paul.
Add-on services
The Postal Service offers additional services for some types of mail.
Delivery confirmation

- Confirms delivery of package
- Detailed package tracking is not included, but information is sometimes available
- Results available online or telephone
- Only available with First Class Mail parcels, Priority Mail, and Package Services (Media Mail, Parcel Post, and Bound Printed Matter)
Signature confirmation

- Confirms delivery with signature
- Recipient's signature is kept on file
- Only available with First Class Mail parcels, Priority Mail, and Package Services (Media Mail, Parcel Post, and Bound Printed Matter)
Insurance

- Provides package with insurance from loss or damage while in transit
- Available for amounts up to $5,000
- Covers material losses only minus depreciation
Certified Mail

- Provides proof of mailing, and a delivery record
- Available for First Class Mail and Priority Mail
Registered Mail

- Provides mailing receipt, delivery record, and protection for valuables
- Available for Priority Mail and First Class Mail
- Availble for sending US Government classified documents, up to the Confidential level.
Collect On Delivery (C.O.D.)

- Allows merchants to offer customers an option to pay upon delivery
- Insurance comes included with fee
- Amount to be collected cannot exceed $1,000
- Available for First-Class Mail, Express Mail, Priority Mail, and Package Services (Parcel Post, Bound Printed Matter, and Media Mail)
Postage stamps
All unused US postage stamps issued since 1861 are still valid as postage at their indicated value. Stamps with no value shown or denominated by a letter are also still valid at their purchase price.
Copyright and reproduction
All US postage stamps and other postage items that were released before 1978 are in the public domain. After this time they are copyright by the postal service under Title 17 of the United States Code. Written permission is required for use of copyrighted postage stamp images. [http://www.usps.com/communications/organization/noncommlicensing.htm]
PC postage
In addition to using standard stamps, postage can now be printed from a personal computer using a system called Information Based Indicia. Authorized providers of PC Postage are:
- [http://www.stamps.com Stamps.com]
- [http://www.pitneybowes.com Pitney Bowes]
- [http://www.endicia.com Endicia Internet Postage]
Sponsorships
Beginning in 1996, the USPS was head sponsor of a professional cycling team bearing its name. The team featured Lance Armstrong, seven-time winner of the Tour de France. The sponsorship ended in 2004, when the Discovery Channel stepped in as the main sponsor and renamed the team as the Discovery Channel Pro Cycling Team.
Employment in the USPS
The USPS employs more people than any company in the United States except Wal-Mart. It employed 790,000 personnel in 2003, divided into offices, processing centers, and actual post offices. USPS employees are divided into three major categories according to the work they engage in:
- Letter Carriers, also referred to as mailmen or mail-carriers; are the public face of the USPS.
- Mail handlers and processors often work at the evening and night to prepare mail and bulk goods for the carriers to deliver. Work is physically strenuous, especially for mail handlers; many mailbags loaded from and onto trucks weigh as much as 60 pounds (27 kg).
- Clerks work in the post offices, handling customers' needs, receiving express mail, and selling stamps. DCO's (Data Conversion Operators), who type out and forward mail to their destinations.
Public reputation
In the early 1990s, there was a widely publicized wave of workplace shootings by disgruntled employees at USPS facilities. Due to sensationalistic media coverage, postal employees gained a mostly undeserved reputation among the general public as being mentally ill. This stereotype in turn has influenced American culture, as seen in the slang term "going postal" (see Patrick Sherrill for information on his August 20, 1986, rampage) and the computer game Postal. Another example is the movie Men in Black II, where all of Tommy Lee Jones' co-workers at the post office turn out to be aliens. In an episode of Seinfeld, the character Newman, who is a mailman, explained that postal workers "go crazy and kill everyone" because the mail never stops. The [http://www.usps.com/communications/news/strs.htm Setting the Record Straight] section of USPS.com features letters to newspaper editors, television producers, and other media representatives which USPS has sent in response to criticisms of the Postal Service and to uses of the term "going postal." Also, the fact that the post office enjoys a governement-enforced monopoly on letter delivery is a source of resentment by some who would rather see competition and lower prices for the service
See also

- U.S. postal abbreviations
- History of USPS rates
- Rural Free Delivery
- USPS creed
- Government monopoly
- Postal Inspection Service
Unions of the U.S. Postal Service

- American Postal Workers Union
- National Association of Letter Carriers
- National Postal Mail Handlers Union
- National Rural Letter Carriers Association
External links

- [http://www.usps.com USPS Official web site]
- [http://www.usps.com/cpim/ftp/pubs/pub32.pdf USPS Glossary of Postal Terms (Publication 32)]
- [http://pe.usps.com/text/pub28/welcome.htm USPS Postal Addressing Standards (Publication 28)]
- [http://www.usps.com/history/his1.htm History of the United States Postal Service]
- [http://www.nalc.org/depart/cau/pdf/manuals/pub542.pdf Understanding the Private Express Statutes] USPS Publication 542 (June 1998) pdf file
- [http://www.uspsprocycling.com US Postal Service cycling team]
- [http://www.lysanderspooner.org/STAMP2.htm "Father of 3-cent Stamp" Spooner fought Post Office] Account of Lysander Spooner's fight against USPS monopoly
- [http://flag.blackened.net/daver/anarchism/tucker/tucker38.html The Post Office and Private Mail Service] 19th century American individualist anarchist Benjamin Tucker opposes USPS monopoly
- [http://www.cato.org/dailys/12-07-99.html America's Post Office Challenges The Digital Age] An argument in support of ending the government monopoly
- [http://www.fee.org/publications/the-freeman/article.asp?aid=3976 Time for the Mail Monopoly to Go]
- [http://www.cato.org/testimony/ct-eh043096.html Postal Service Privatization] Dr. Edward L. Hudgins, of the Cato Institute, speaks to Appropriations Subcommittee on Treasury, Postal Service, and General Government Postal Service
- Category: Postal organisations Postal Service

United States Army

The Army is the branch of the United States armed forces that has primary responsibility for land-based military operations. As of fiscal year 2004 (FY04), it consisted of 485,500 soldiers (including 71,400 women) on active duty and 591,000 in reserve (325,000 in the Army National Guard (ARNG) and 246,000 in the United States Army Reserve (USAR)). The Continental Army was formed on June 14, 1775, before the establishment of the United States, to meet the demands of the American Revolutionary War. Congress created the United States Army on June 3, 1784 after the end of the American Revolutionary War, to replace the disbanded Continental Army.

Components of the U.S. Army

1784 Between 1775 and August 7, 1789, the established Federal Army was the Continental Army. On the latter date, the Continental Army was replaced by the United States Army under the newly-established War Department. The structure of the US Army was constitutionally established as the Regular Army, the units of the State Militias when called to federal service, and units of Volunteers that were established for the duration of the emergency. This remained the normal scheme of things until the Civil War, when the first Conscription took place. The concept of the National Army as a Conscript Army was thus established in all but name, since units were established to accommodate the use of the conscripts in combat. The last time that the Volunteer Units were utilized was the Spanish-American War in 1898. From that time forward, the Regular Army, the State Militias, and the National Army were codified as standard. In 1908, the Organized Reserve Corps was established to provide trained Officers and Enlisted Men for immediate use in time of war. During the First World War, the "National Army" was organized to fight the conflict. It was demobilized at the end of World War I, and was replaced by the Regular Army, the Organized Reserve Corps, and the State Militias. In the 1920s and 1930s, the "career" soldiers were known as the "Regular Army" with the "Enlisted Reserve Corps" and "Officer Reserve Corps" augmented to fill vacancies when needed. In 1941, the "Army of the United States" was founded to fight the Second World War. The Regular Army, Army of the United States, the National Guard, and Officer/Enlisted Reserve Corps (ORC and ERC) existed simultaneously. After World War II, the ORC and ERC were combined into the United States Army Reserve. The Army of the United States was re-established for the Korean War and Vietnam War and was demobilized upon the suspension of the draft. Currently, the Army is divided into the Regular Army, the Army Reserve, and the United States National Guard. Prior to the 21st century, members of the National Guard were considered state Soldiers unless federalized by the Army. Currently, all National Guard members hold dual status: as National Guardsmen under the authority of the State Adjutant General, and as National Guardsmen under the authority of the Army Human Resources Command. Until such time as National Guardsmen retire from National Guard service, they are never considered members of the Army Reserve, but become members of the US Army Retired Reserve upon retirement, and remain in such status until their 60th Birthday, when they become full-fleged Retirees with a status equal to Regular Army Retirees. Various State Defense Forces also exist, sometimes known as State Militias, which are sponsored by individual state governments and serve as an auxiliary to the National Guard. Except in times of extreme national emergency, such as a mainland invasion of the United States, State Militias are operated independently from the U.S. Army and are seen as state government agencies rather than a component of the military. By design, the use of the Army Reserve and National Guard has increased since the Vietnam War. Reserve and Guard units took part in the Gulf War, peacekeeping in Kosovo, and the 2003 invasion of Iraq. With recent manpower shortages in the military, some U.S. citizens have been concerned regarding a reinstitution of the draft (conscription) force. Federal and state lawmakers, however, have asserted that no such action is being planned. Although the present-day Army exists as an all volunteer force, augmented by Reserve and National Guard forces, measures exist for emergency expansion in the event of a catastrophic occurrence, such as a large scale attack against the US or the outbreak of a major global war. The current "call-up" order of the United States Army is as follows: major global war # Regular Army volunteer force # Army Reserve total mobilization # Full scale activation of all National Guard forces # Recall of all retired personnel fit for military duty # Re-establishment of the draft and creation of a conscript force within the Regular Army # Recall of previously discharged officers and enlisted who were separated under honorable conditions # Activation of the State Defense Forces/State Militias # Full scale mobilization of the unorganized U.S. militia The final stage of Army mobilization, known as "activation of the unorganized militia" would effectively place all able bodied males in the service of the U.S. Army. The last time an approximation of this occurred was during the American Civil War when the Confederate States of America activated the "Home Guard" in 1865, drafting all males, regardless of age or health, into the Confederate Army. A similar event, albeit in a foreign country, occurred during World War II when Nazi Germany activated the Volkssturm in April and May of 1945.

Structure of the U.S. Army

Officially, a member of the U.S. Army is called a Soldier (always capitalized). The U.S. Army is divided into the following components, from largest to smallest: Soldier, Smith, Weyland, Nugent;
front row: Simpson, Patton, Spaatz, Eisenhower, Bradley, Hodges, Gerow.]] Gerow :#Field Army Field Army: Usually commanded by a General (GEN; note that abbreviations of military rank within the U.S. Army are given in all capital letters without a period or other punctuation). :#Corps: Consists of two or more divisions and organic support brigades. The commander is most often a Lieutenant General (LTG). :#Division: Usually commanded by a Major General (MG). :#Brigade (or group): Composed of typically three or more battalions, and commanded by a Colonel (COL) or Brigadier General (BG). (See Regiment for combat arms units.) :#Battalion (or squadron): A Battalion usually consists of two to six companies and roughly 300 to 1000 soldiers. Most units are organized into battalions. Cavalry units are formed into squadrons. A battalion-sized unit is commanded by a Lieutenant Colonel (LTC), supported by a Command Sergeant Major/E-9 (CSM). This unit consists of a Battalion Commander (CO, LTC), a Battalion Executive Officer (XO,MAJ), a Command Sergeant Major (CSM) and headquarters, 3-5 Company Commanders (CPT), 3-5 Company Executive Officers (1LT), 3-5 First Sergeants (1SG) and headquarters, 6 or more Platoon Leaders (2LT/1LT), 6 or more Platoon sergeants (SFC),and 12 or more Squad Leaders (any NCO). :#Company (or battery/troop): A company usually consists of three to four platoons and roughly 100 to 130 soldiers. Artillery units are formed into batteries. Cavalry units are formed into troops. A company-sized unit is usually led by a Company Commander usually the rank of Captain/O-3 (CPT) supported by a First Sergeant/E-8 (1SG). This unit consists of a Company Commander (CO, CPT), a Company Executive Officer (XO,1LT), A First Sergeant(1SG) and a headquarters, Two or more Platoon Leaders (2LT/1LT), two or more Platoon Sergeants (SFC), and four or more Squad Leaders (any NCO). :#Platoon: Usually led by a lieutenant supported by a Sergeant First Class/E-7 (SFC). This unit consists of a Platoon Leader (2LT/1LT), a Platoon Sergeant (SFC), and two or more Squad Leaders (any NCO). :#Section (military unit): Usually directed by Staff Sergeants/E-6 (SSG) who supply guidance for junior NCO Squad leaders. Often used in conjunction with platoons at the company level. :#Squad: Squad leaders are often Staff Sergeants/E-6 (SSG), Sergeants/E-5 (SGT), or Corporals/E-4 (CPL). This unit consists of eight to ten Soldiers. :#Fire team: Usually consists of four Soldiers: a fire team leader, a grenadier, and two riflemen. Fire team leaders are often Corporals/E-4 (CPL).

Organization

The Army is organized by function. Combat Arms include Infantry, Armor, Field Artillery, Air Defense Artillery, Combat Engineers, Army Aviation, and Special Forces. Combat Support Arms include Signal Corps, Intelligence Corps, Chemical Corps, and Military Police Corps. Combat Service Support troops include the Judge Advocate General's Corps, Adjutant General's Corps, Finance Corps, Transportation Corps, Quartermaster Corps, Ordnance Corps, Medical Corps, Medical Service Corps, and Nurse Corps.

Named Campaigns

Revolutionary War

Nurse Corps #Lexington, 19 April 1775. Opening hostilities of the Revolutionary War occurred at Lexington, Massachusetts and Concord, Massachusetts on 19 April 1775, when a column of British troops that had moved out of Boston to seize rebel military stores at Concord was assailed by Minute Men and militia. The Massachusetts militia immediately placed the British in Boston under siege. #Ticonderoga, 10 May 1775. At the same time as Lexington, steps were taken to send an expedition against British-held Fort Ticonderoga on Lake Champlain, a strategic post well-supplied with artillery and military stores much needed by the American forces investing Boston. Early on 10 May a New England force of some 80 men led by Cols. Ethan Allen of Vermont and Benedict Arnold of Connecticut surprised the British garrison of about 40 men, which surrendered without a fight. Following this success, Allen seized Crown Point, New York on 12 May and Arnold temporarily occupied St. John, Quebec, a fort across the Canadian border, on 16 May. Subsequently, a large part of the 100 cannon and substantial military stores captured at Ticonderoga were laboriously hauled overland to Boston under the direction of Maj. Gen. Henry Knox, of Washington's artillery, to supply the army besieging the city. #Boston, 17 June 1775 - 17 March 1776. On the night of 16 - 17 June 1775 about 1,200 men of the Colonial force besieging Boston moved on to the Charlestown isthmus overlooking the city and threw up entrenchments on Breed's Hill. The British garrison reacted promptly to this threat. On 17 June 2,200 troops under Maj. Gen. William Howe were ferried across to the isthmus and stormed the American positions on Breed's Hill. In the ensuing battle, incorrectly named after Bunker Hill which stands nearby, the British drove the Colonials from the isthmus after three assaults, but at a cost of about 1,000 in killed and wounded as compared with American losses of approximately 400 killed and wounded. Some 3,030 patriots took part in the fighting at one time or another. This proved to be the only major engagement of the prolonged siege of Boston. Gen. George Washington took formal command of the besieging army on 3 July 1775 and devoted the next several months to building up the American force and trying to solve its severe logistical difficulties. By March 1776 Washington had an army of 14,000 men. On 4 March he moved suddenly to install artillery on Dorchester Heights and, a short time later, on Nook's Hill, positions that dominated Boston from the south. The British commander, Howe, now recognized the serious difficulty of his position. He evacuated the city by 17 March and on 26 March sailed with about 9,000 men for Halifax, Nova Scotia. #Quebec, 28 August 1775 - July 1776. In June 1775 the Continental Congress, influenced by reports that the British commander in Canada was recruiting a force in preparation for an invasion of New York and by hopes that Canada, largely inhabited by French, might become a fourteenth colony in support of the Revolution, authorized seizure of any vital points in Canada needed to guarantee the security of the colonies. Consequently, a two-pronged invasion of Canada was launched in the early fall of 1775. Col. Benedict Arnold, starting from Cambridge, Massachusetts, with about 1,100 men, went by water and land through the Maine wilderness on an epic march up the Kennebec River and down the Chaudiere River, arriving before Quebec on 8 November with only 650 men. There he had to await the arrival of Brig. Gen. Richard Montgomery, who had taken over command of a force of about 2,000 men organized at Fort Ticonderoga by Maj. Gen. Philip Schuyler for an advance up the historic Lake Champlain-St. Lawrence River route. Beginning on 17 September, Montgomery laid siege to the British fort at St. Johns, which fell on 2 November, opening up the way to American occupation of Montreal on 13 November. Finally, Montgomery joined Arnold near Quebec on 3 December, but with only 300 men, the rest of his force staying behind to garrison St. Johns and Montreal, Quebec. With enlistments of most of the volunteer troops expiring at the end of the year' the two commanders decided to undertake a desperate night attack on Quebec on 30-31 December 1775. A composite British garrison repelled the assault, killing or wounding about 100 Americans and taking over 400 prisoners. Montgomery was among those killed. In spite of these severe losses, the Americans continued to besiege the city until the spring of 1776, when the reinforced British garrison drove the Colonials, who had already begun a retreat, back to the head of Lake Champlain. #Charleston, 28-29 June 1776 and 29 March-12 May 1780. The two engagements at Charleston, South Carolina, are reflected on a single streamer. The first campaign blunted the British threat in the southern theater for three years, and the second, while a defeat for the Americans, did not result in a cessation of hostilities in the south. Guerrillas began to harry British posts and lines of communications, and the American grass roots strength began once again to assert itself and to deny the British the fruits of military victory won in the field. #Long Island, 26-29 August 1776. After the British evacuation of Boston, Washington immediately moved his army, less the militia, to New York, in anticipation of a British invasion of that strategically important city. During July and August 1776, General Howe, supported by a British fleet under his brother, Adm. Lord Richard Howe, landed an army of 32,000 British and Hessian regulars unopposed on Staten Island. But by late August Washington had assembled a force of over 20,000 virtually untrained Continentals and militia, and built a system of defenses on and around Manhattan Island. About half of these Colonial troops were disposed in fortifications on Brooklyn Heights and forward positions at the western end of Long Island under command of Maj. Gen. Israel Putnam. From 22 - 25 August General Howe landed about 20,000 men on Long Island and, in the evening of the 26th, directed a wide flanking movement around the American left, commanded by Maj. Gen. John Sullivan. On the morning of the 27th Howe fell upon the rear of Sullivan's forces and, despite a valiant defense by the Continentals on the right under Brig. Gen. William Alexander (Lord Stirling), the whole American front crumpled. Remnants of the forward American forces fled back to entrenchments on Brooklyn Heights and two nights later were evacuated to Manhattan in a skillful withdrawal unobserved by the British. Estimates place American losses at 300-400 killed and wounded and 700-1,200 taken prisoners. General Howe listed his losses as 367. #Trenton, 26 December 1776. The British followed up their success on Long Island with a series of landings on Manhattan Island which compelled Washington to retire northward to avoid entrapment. When Fort Washington and Fort Lee on opposing sides of the Hudson above Manhattan were lost in mid-November 1776, Washington retreated across New Jersey with General Howe in close pursuit, escaping finally over the Delaware into Pennsylvania with about 3,000 men. Howe then went into winter quarters in New York City, leaving garrisons at Newport, R. I., and in several New Jersey towns. In December 1776, Washington determined to make a surprise attack on the British garrison in Trenton, a 1,400-man Hessian force, in the hope that a striking victory would lift the badly flagging American morale. Reinforcements had raised Washington's army to about 7,000 and on Christmas night (25-26 December) he ferried about 2,400 men of this force across the ice-choked Delaware River. At 0800 hours they converged on Trenton, New Jersey in two columns, achieving complete surprise. After only an hour and a half of fighting, the Hessians surrendered. Some 400 of the garrison escaped southward to Bordentown, New Jersey, when two other American columns failed to get across the Delaware in time to intercept them. About 30 were killed and 918 captured. American losses were only 4 dead and a like number wounded. #Princeton, 3 January 1777. After the successful coup at Trenton, Washington recrossed the Delaware into Pennsylvania with his Hessian prisoners. But he reoccupied Trenton on 30 - 31 December 1776, and collected there a force of 5,200 men, about half militia. Meanwhile, Maj. Gen. Charles Cornwallis, British commander in New Jersey, who was in New York at the time of the attack on Trenton, returned gathering troops as he came. He entered Trenton with some 6,000 British regulars on 2 January and faced Washington's forces, which had withdrawn southward behind Assunpink Creek. The Americans were in a most precarious position with their backs to the Delaware. Fortunately, Cornwallis delayed his attack until the following morning. This gave Washington's men an opportunity to steal off quietly by a side road during the night of 2 - 3 January, leaving their campfires burning brightly. They slipped southward and eastward undetected around the enemy's flank and by morning of the 3rd had arrived at Princeton, where they encountered a column of British regulars led by Col. Charles Mawhood just leaving the town to join Cornwallis. Mahwood's force consisted of only single battalion of aroung 400 men. But despite being heavily outnumbered, Mahwood routed two American brigades in succession, and was only driven from the field when Washington arrived to rally the panicking Americans bringing up a fresh brigade, and giving the Americans, with 4,600 men, an 11 to 1 numerical advantage. Mawhood's force retired in good order toward Trenton and New Brunswick, having lost some 86 men in the unequal fight, while Washington moved on north, having taken 40-50 casualties, to Morristown, New Jersey, where thickly wooded hills provided protection against a British attack. Here he established his winter headquarters on the flank of the British line of communications, compelling General Howe to withdraw his forces in New Jersey back to New Brunswick, New Jersey and points eastward. Some 323 other British troops surrendered to Washington's force in and around Princton without a fight. #Saratoga, 30 July - 17 October 1777. British over-all strategy in 1777 had two major objectives: (1) to split New England from the rest of the American states by a drive from Canada down the Hudson to Albany that would link up with another British force advancing north from New York City; and (2) to seize Philadelphia, seat of the Revolutionary government. The campaign in upper New York began in June 1777 with a two-pronged British drive from Canada. Maj. Gen. John Burgoyne's force of about 7,500, accompanied by some 400 Indians, pushed down Lake Champlain and compelled 2,500 Continentals and militia under Maj. Gen. Arthur St. Clair to evacuate Ticonderoga on 27 June. Other American forces in the area under the over-all command of General Schuyler retired southward, but were able to slow the progress of the heavily laden British in the rugged terrain. The other prong of the British invading force consisted of some 700 regulars and Tories, and a band of 1,000 Indians, under command of Col. Barry St. Leger. This force moved east from Fort Oswego on Lake Ontario into the Mohawk Valley with the objective of joining with Burgoyne at Albany. Leger laid siege to Fort Stanwix guarding the head of the Mohawk Valley on 2 August, but had to give up his campaign in mid-August when a relief force of 950 Continentals under Arnold scattered his Indian allies by means of a clever ruse. Meanwhile, Burgoyne continued his advance toward Albany, although his force was further weakened by the near annihilation on 17 August of a foraging detachment dispatched to capture stores at Bennington, Vt., protected by 2,600 militia under Brig. Gen. John Stark. On 13 - 14 September Burgoyne crossed the Hudson at Saratoga (now Schuylerville, N.Y.) and faced an American force of about 7,000 under Maj. Gen. Horatio Gates, who on 19 August had replaced General Schuyler as over-all commander of the northern army. On 19 September, Burgoyne, determined to reach Albany by winter, moved to attack Bemis Heights, where Gates' force barred the route southward in strongly entrenched positions. A major engagement occurred at Freeman's Farm, just forward of the main positions. The Americans yielded the field but inflicted twice as many casualties (600) as they suffered and held on to the Heights. For more than two weeks Burgoyne remained inactive while Maj. Gen. Sir Henry Clinton, now commanding troops in New York City, made an ineffectual effort to send relief forces up the Hudson. Finally, on 7 October, Burgoyne ventured out of his lines toward the American left with 1,650 troops and was repulsed in a sharp fight known as the Battle of Bemis Heights. On 9 October he retired to a position near Saratoga, where he was soon virtually surrounded by an American force now grown to nearly 15,000 men. Here on 17 October Burgoyne surrendered his entire army of about 5,000 men and large military stores. #Brandywine, 11 September 1777. The campaign to seize Philadelphia, the second mayor phase of British strategy in 1777, began in late July. Some 15,000 troops under Howe's command sailed from New York on 23 July and landed at Head of Elk (now Elkton), Maryland, a month later (25 August). Washington, with about 11,000 men, took up a defensive position blocking the way to Philadelphia at Chad's Ford on the eastern side of Brandywine Creek in Pennsylvania. Howe attacked on 11 September, sending Cornwallis across the creek in a wide-sweeping flanking movement around the American right, while his Hessian troops demonstrated opposite Chad's Ford. Maj. Gen. Nathanael Greene's troops staved off Cornwallis' threatened envelopment of Washington's whole force, and the Americans fell back to Chester in a hard-pressed but orderly retreat. Patriot losses in this engagement totaled about 1,200 killed, wounded, and prisoners. British casualties were 576. #Germantown, 4 October 1777. After their victory at Brandywine the British forces under Howe maneuvered in the vicinity of Philadelphia for two weeks, virtually annihilating a rear guard force under Brig. Gen. Anthony Wayne at Paoli on 21 September 1777, before moving unopposed into the city on 26 September. Howe established his main encampment in nearby Germantown, stationing some 9,000 men there. Washington promptly attempted a coordinated attack against this garrison on the night of 3 - 4 October. Columns were to move into Germantown from four different directions and begin the assault at dawn Two of the columns, both made up of militia, never appeared to take part in the attack, but in the early phases of the fighting the columns under Greene and Divan achieved considerable success. However, a dense early morning fog which resulted in some American troops firing on each other while it permitted the better disciplined British to re-form for a counterattack and a shortage of, ammunition contributed to the still not fully explained retreat of the Americans, beginning about 0900. Howe pursued the Colonials a few miles as they fell back in disorder, but he did not exploit his victory. American losses were 673 killed and wounded and about 400 taken prisoner. British losses were approximately 521 killed and wounded. #Monmouth, 28 June 1778. After conclusion of the Franco-American Alliance (6 February 1778) British forces in America had to give consideration to the new threat created by the powerful French fleet. General Clinton, who relieved Howe as British commander in America on 8 May 1778, decided to shift the main body of his troops from Philadelphia to a point nearer the coast where it would be easier to maintain close communications with the British Fleet. Consequently, he ordered evacuation of the 10,000-man garrison in Philadelphia on 18 June. As these troops set out through New Jersey toward New York, Washington broke camp at his winter headquarters in Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, and began pursuit of Clinton with an army of about 13,500 men. Advance elements under Mad. Gen. Charles Lee launched the initial attack on the British column as it marched out of Monmouth Courthouse (now Freehold, New Jersey, on 28 June, an extremely hot day. For reasons not entirely clear Lee did not follow up early advantages gained, and when British reinforcements arrived on the scene he ordered a retreat. This encouraged Clinton to attack with his main force. Washington relieved Lee and assumed personal direction of the battle, which continued until dark without either side retiring from the field. But, during the night, the British slipped away to Sandy Hook, New Jersey, from where their fleet took them to New York City. The British reported losses of 65 killed, 155 wounded, and 64 missing; the Americans listed 69 killed, 161 wounded, and 130 missing. General Lee was subsequently court-martialed and suspended from service for disobedience and misbehavior. Washington's army moved northward, crossed the Hudson, and occupied positions at White Plains, New York #Savannah, 29 December 1778 and 16 September-10 October 1779. The fighting at Savannah, Georgia, on these two occasions is represented by a single streamer. In the first battle, a British expeditionary force that had landed on the Savannah River below the town overwhelmed and outmaneuvered the American defending force under General Robert Howe, and Savannah was captured. The following year D'Estaing's French fleet returned from the West Indies to the southern coast and began to debark troops at Beaulieu, Georgia, 14 miles south of Savannah, with the intention of attacking the British at Savannah. A combined force of 1,500 Americans under General Lincoln and more than 5,000 Frenchmen from D'Estaing's fleet laid siege to Savannah, which was defended by about 3,200 British regulars. D'Estaing's fears for the safety of the French fleet led to an early Franco-American attack on the entrenched British, which was repulsed with 828 casualties. British losses were 103. #Camden, 16 August 1780. An encounter between the main British/Hessian force in the Carolinia's, 2,200 troops under General Cornwallis, and a newly raised American force of 4,100 under Horation Gates and Baron de Kalb, sent south to retieve the situation following the fall of Charleston. The American centre and left, made up of militia from Virginia and North Carolina, fled at the first impact of the British assault, leaving the Continental regulars on the right to fight on their own. Outflanked, and taken from the rear by cavalry under Lt. Col. Banastre Tarleton, the Continentals were overwhelmed and de Kalb killed. British losses were 312. American lossess were 880 killed and wounded, plus 1,000 captured. #Cowpens, 17 January 1781. Cowpens, South Carolina, was the scene of a classic battle, which marked the beginning of the American campaign under General Greene, to drive the British from the south. In terms of duration and actual troops engaged, it was a larger battle than Princeton, and its results—the destruction of an important part of the British army in the south—were incalculable toward ending the war. #Guilford Court House, 15 March 1781. Guilford Court House, North Carolina, was the site of the culminating battle in General Greene's campaign against General Cornwallis. Despite having 4,400 troops, and being on the defensive, General Greene lost agaisnt the able Cornwallis and his 1,900 veteran soldiers in a hard fought engagement that cost the British 500 casualties, and the Americans 1,300. However, Greene could replace his heavier losses, while Cornwallis could not, causing him to retreat to the coast and from there to move to Virginia, where he ultimately became trapped at Yorktown. #Yorktown, 28 September - 19 October 1781. After 1778 the main theater of war shifted to the South as the British concentrated on trying to reestablish their control of that area. By 1781 they were convinced that this could not be accomplished while Virginia continued to serve as a base for American military operations. Hence in January 1781 Clinton sent the American turncoat, Benedict Arnold, with 1,600 British troops to raid up the James River. By late May the British had accumulated about 7,200 men in Virginia, including the remnants (1,500) of Cornwallis' force, which had come up from Wilmington, North Carolina. Cornwallis was given over-all command of British forces in Virginia and in late May and early June led them on raids deep into the state. At first he was opposed only by a numerically greatly inferior force under the Marquis de Lafayette, but in mid-June the later was reinforced by troops under Brig. Gen. Anthony Wayne and Baron von Steuben, drillmaster and inspector general of the Continental Army. Cornwallis then turned back to the coast to establish a base at Yorktown from which he could maintain sea communications with Clinton in New York.
- Meanwhile, Washington was tentatively preparing his northern army, recently reinforced by about 4,800 French troops under Lt. Gen. Jean B. de Rochambeau, for an attack on New York. However, he received confirmation on 14 August that Adm. Francois de Grasse's fleet had departed the French West Indies with 3,000 troops aboard and would be available for operations in the Chesapeake Bay area until mid-October. Re therefore finally determined to go to Virginia with a substantial part of his army, including the French regulars under Rochambeau. He crossed the Hudson (20-26 August), made a feint in the direction of New York to hold Clinton in the city, and then struck southward across New Jersey and Pennsylvania to Maryland. In the meantime, De Grasse's fleet arrived off Yorktown on 30 August, debarked 3,000 French regulars to reinforce Lafayette, and on 5 September fought an indecisive naval engagement off the Virginia capes with a British fleet under Adm. Thomas Graves. After several days of maneuvering at sea, Graves retired temporarily to New York for repairs, leaving the French fleet in control of Chesapeake Bay. This permitted Washington and Rochambeau to embark their forces in Maryland and sail via the Chesapeake and the James River to a point near Williamsburg (14-24 September). From there an allied army numbering about 15,000-8,845 Americans and 7,800 French moved forward on 28 September to begin siege operations against Yorktown. Finally, after a night attack on 16 October failed to recapture key defense points, Cornwallis requested an armistice (17 October). He surrendered his entire command—about 8,000 men—on 19 October. In the siege the British lost 156 killed and 326 wounded; the Americans, 20 killed and 56 wounded; and the French, 52 killed and 134 wounded. British hopes for victory in America collapsed with Cornwallis' defeat. Lord North's ministry fell in March 1782 and the new cabinet opened direct negotiations with the American peace commissioners in Europe that resulted ultimately in ending the war. ----

Rank Structure

Comparison of ranking structure available at Ranks and Insignia of NATO. The Officer Corps provides leadership and managerial functions, and is composed of
- Company Grade officers
- Second Lieutenant (2LT; pay grade O-1) - gold bar,
- First Lieutenant (1LT; pay grade O-2) - silver bar,
- Captain (CPT; pay grade O-3) - two silver bars,
- Field Grade officers
- Major (MAJ; pay grade O-4) - gold oak leaf,
- Lieutenant Colonel (LTC; pay grade O-5) - silver oak leaf,
- Colonel (COL; pay grade O-6) - silver eagle,
- and General officers
- Brigadier General (BG; pay grade O-7) - one star,
- Major General (MG; pay grade O-8) - two stars,
- Lieutenant General (LTG; pay grade O-9) - three stars,
- General (GEN; pay grade O-10) - four stars
- General of the Army - In the 19th century, a title held by the Commander of the Army. After World War II a rank comprised of five stars in a pentagon
- General of the Armies - No established insignia. Held only by George Washington and John J. Pershing There are several sources of commissioned officers:
- The United States Military Academy at West Point, New York
- Graduates of other military academies of the United States may elect to be commissioned in the Army
- Enlisted soldiers or College graduates who successfully pass Officer Candidate School (OCS)
- College graduates who underwent Army Reserve Officer Training Corps courses at a four-year university
- Lawyers, doctors, nurses, veterinarians, and chaplains may be directly commissioned into their respective corps
- Enlisted soldiers may also be battlefield commissioned for valor and leadership during actual combat, Audie Murphy received his commission in this manner Officers receive a commission assigning them to the Officer Corps from the President. The appointments of commision officers can be either in the Regular Army, the Army Reserve (USAR), or the National Guard. Those officers who receive their commision in the USAR, but serve on active duty, upon attaining the rank of Major, can be appointed into the Regular Army by the President with the advice and consent of the United States Senate [http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/10/531.html]. Commissioned officers are assigned to a branch of service until they reach the rank of Brigadier General, where it is assumed that they are competent to command soldiers of all branches. Once commissioned, an officer attends several levels of professional education, starting with branch qualification in their respective branch and concluding in Command and General Staff College at Fort_Leavenworth, Kansas. Professional education is required for promotion at certain grades. The Warrant Officer is a single track specialty officer. Initially appointed an officer by the Secretary of the Army via a warrant, he/she is commissioned by the President upon promotion to the rank of Chief Warrant Officer Two (CW2). The warrant officer is managed as a company grade officer, but receives limited field grade privilege upon promotion to Chief Warrant Officer Four (CW4). The primary source for Warrant Officers is the U.S. Army Warrant Officer Candidate School at Fort Rucker, Alabama. The Non-Commissioned Officer Corps (or NCO Corps) is the first line of leadership for the enlisted members of the Army, and includes the ranks of
- Corporal (CPL; pay grade E-4) (two stripes pointing up, called chevrons) ),
- Sergeant (SGT; pay grade E-5) (three chevrons),
- Staff Sergeant (SSG; pay grade E-6) (three chevrons and one rocker, a curved stripe at the bottom),
- Sergeant First Class (SFC; pay grade E-7) (three chevrons and two rockers),
- Master Sergeant (MSG; pay grade E-8) (three chevrons and three rockers),
- First Sergeant (1SG; pay grade E-8) (which holds the same enlisted pay grade as Master Sergeant, but which carries extra administrative duties - three chevrons and three rockers with a lozenge in the center),
- Sergeant Major (SGM; pay grade E-9) (three chevrons and three rockers with a star in the center),
- Command Sergeant Major (CSM; pay grade E-9) (three chevrons and three rockers with a wreathed star in the center)
- and Sergeant Major of the Army (of whom there is only one, and who advises the Chief of Staff of the Army on matters relating to enlisted personnel - three chevrons and three rockers with a centered eagle accompanied with two stars). Sergeant Major of the Army Training for NCOs takes place at any of the various NCO training centers around the world. Until relatively recent history, most countries depended upon their officer corps to micromanage strategy, tactics and virtually every other aspect of military operations. Current military theory in the U.S. and UK has begun to emphasize the "strategic corporal," recognizing that combat decision-making by NCOs is potentially of vast importance. The lowest enlisted ranks are:
- Private (PV1; pay grade E-1) (no rank insignia),
- Private Enlisted Grade 2 (PV2; pay grade E-2) (one chevron),
- Private First Class (PFC; pay grade E-3) (one chevron and one rocker),
- and Specialist (SPC; pay grade E-4) (which is the same Enlisted Grade as Corporal, but which requires technical leadership skills, as opposed to the combat leadership skills required of corporal -a dark green patch with an eagle centered). A Specialist ranks below a corporal in terms of chain of command. Training for enlisted soldiers usually consists of Basic Training, and Advanced Individual Training in their primary Military Occupational Specialty (MOS) at any of the numerous MOS training facilities around the world. All members of the Army must take an oath upon being sworn in as members, swearing (or affirming) to "protect the Constitution of the United States from all enemies, both foreign and domestic." This emphasis on the defense of the United States Constitution illustrates the concern of the framers that the military be subordinate to legitimate civilian authority.

Uniforms

Since World War II, the Army has maintained three distinct types of uniforms: Full Dress, Service/Garrison Dress, and Combat Dress. The Full Dress uniform, known today as Army Blue, is worn for most ceremonial duties in most Stateside posts, especially those attached to the 3rd Infantry Regiment in Washington, D.C. This uniform, adopted in present form in 1955, consists of a dark blue open-fronted coat with white shirt and black necktie, and light blue trousers, all trimmed in gold (the U.S. Marine Corps dress blues has a "choker collar" coat and scarlet trim). It is worn with a dark blue saucer cap, with officers rank insignia being worn on rectangluar epaulettes in the color of their branch of service. General officers wear a similar uniform, but with dark blue trousers in place of light blue ones, along with their distinctive General officer's insignia. A bowtie, worn in place of the necktie, is used when the uniform is worn when attending events similar to that of a "black-tie" function. The Service/Garrison uniform, introduced in the mid-1950's and replacing the Olive Drab uniforms worn since 1902, consists of an "Army Green" coat and trousers similar in design to the Army Blue uniform. Between the introduction of the uniform and the mid-1980's, the uniform was worn with a tan shirt and black necktie, but has since been replaced with a light green shirt. Enlisted members wear rank on both sleeves, while officers have their insginia on the epaulets. In addition, officers uniforms have black mohair bands on the coat cuffs and mohair stripes on the trousers. Since 2001, the uniform has been worn with the U.S. Army's general service black beret, which was worn only by Ranger regiments, prior to its service-wide introduction. Although regular units wear black shoes, with boots, ascot scarves, and pistol belts being worn only for parade dress functions, Airborne, Ranger, and Special Forces (green beret) units wear "Corcoran" jump boots with the trousers bloused into them. The Combat uniform, known throughout recent history as "fatigues," or "BDUs," has undergone the most changes since World War II. Introduced as a one-piece coverall, it was later changed to a two-piece shirt/trousers design by the end of World War II, and was the most-seen uniform during the Cold War. A two-piece "jungle fatigue" uniform, introduced during the Vietnam War, was modified in the 1980's with a woodland and "six-color" desert pattern, and replaced the old-style fatigues by Operation Desert Shield/Storm. The desert pattern changed after Operation Desert Storm to a 3-color pattern, used by Operation Iraqi Freedom, but the introduction of the new MARPAT digital pattern uniform for U.S. Marines and Navy Combat Corpsmen prompted the Army to introduce its new "Army Combat Uniform," or ACU in 2005. Identical to the Marine's uniform, in terms of pocket layout, the ACU differs only with the cammoflague pattern--the elimination of black squares allow the uniform to be worn in all non-polar terrains throughout the world, thus the same uniform can be worn in the Black Forest in Germany, to the deserts of the Southwest U.S. or Southwest Asia. The ACU also features, for the first time since WW2, rough-hide brown leather boots, which allows easier care, than their black leather counterparts worn since 1955. The new boots replaces the black "speed-lace" all-leather boots and the leather/canvas "jungle" boots worn since Vietnam. The combat uniform is worn with the beret for garrison (base) duties, with a visor cap for non-combat patrols and "kevlar" helmet and body armor for combat duties.

Leadership

Army Combat Uniform The civilian executive is the Secretary of the Army who heads the United States Department of the Army, formerly called the Secretary of War who headed the United States Department of War or the War Office for short, at the founding of the Republic. The professional head of the United States Army is the Chief of Staff of the Army (CSA). This position is filled by a four star general who sits on the Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee. As with the other members of that committee, the Army Chief of Staff is not in the direct chain of command over combatant forces. His function is administrative and policy making. The current Army Chief of Staff is General Peter J. Schoomaker. The most senior Army generals who are directly in the chain of command are those who command a Unified Combatant Command, known as the Combatant Commanders (COCOM's). An example is General John Abizaid, the commander of U.S. Central Command. Three star positions in the Army include some deputy commanders of the Combatant Commands, the heads of the army components of the Combatant Commands and general officers commanding an army corps.

Major Commands of the United States Army

Formations of the United States Army

First Army "First In Deed" (Reserve) :78th "Lightning" Division, Edison, NJ (Training Support) ::1st Brigade (Training Support) ::2d Brigade (Training Support) ::3d Brigade (Training Support) ::4th Brigade (Training Support) ::5th Brigade "We Dare" (Training Support) :85th "Custer" Division (Training Support) ::1st Brigade (Training Support) ::2d Brigade (Training Support) ::3d Brigade (Training Support) ::4th Brigade (Training Support) :87th Division "Golden Acorn", Birmingham, AL (Training Support) ::1st Brigade (Training Support) ::2d Brigade (Training Support) ::3d Brigade (Training Support) ::4th Brigade (Training Support) ::5th Brigade (Training Support) :Army Units ::4th Cavalry Brigade (Training Support) ::157th Infantry Brigade (Training Support) ::188th Infantry Brigade (Training Support) ::205th Infantry Brigade (Separate) (Light) Third Army: Army Central Command (ARCENT) :C/JTF-Kuwait :ARCENT Kuwait :ARCENT Saudi :ARCENT Qatar :Army Prepositioned Stock (APS-3) :Army Prepositioned Stock (APS-5) Fifth Army (Reserve) :7th Infantry Division "Bayonets", Fort Carson, CO (Light) ::39th Infantry Brigade (Light) (Separate) ::41st Infantry Brigade (Light) (Separate) ::45th Infantry Brigade (Light) (Separate) :75th Division, Houston, TX (Training Support) ::1st Brigade (Training Support) ::2d Brigade (Training Support) ::3d Brigade (Training Support) ::4th Brigade (Training Support) :91st Division, Houston, TX (Training Support) ::1st Brigade (Training Support) ::2d Brigade (Training Support) ::3d Brigade (Training Support) ::4th Brigade (Training Support) :Army Units ::5th Armored Brigade (Training Support) ::120th Infantry Brigade (Training Support) ::166th Aviation Brigade (Training Support) ::191st Infantry Brigade (Training Support) Seventh Army: United States Army Europe :V Corps, Heidelberg, Germany ::1st Infantry Division ("The Big Red One") — Würzburg, Germany ::1st Armored Divsion — Wiesbaden, Germany Eighth Army: South Korea ::2d Infantry Division ("Indian Head" Division) — Camp Red Cloud, South Korea ::25th Infantry Division (Light) ("Tropic Lightning") — Schofield Barracks, Hawaii :I Corps, Fort Lewis, Washington ("America's Corps") :::3d Brigade, 2d Infantry Division (Light) :::1st Brigade, 25th Infantry Division (Light) :III Corps, Fort Hood, Texas ::1st Cavalry Division ::4th Infantry Division (Mechanized) :--III Corps U.S. Army National Guard ::7th Infantry Division (Light) ("Bayonet" Division) — Fort Carson, Colorado :XVIII Airborne Corps ::3d Infantry Division (Mechanized) ("Rock of the Marne") — Fort Stewart, Georgia :::1st Brigade (Raiders) "E Pluribus Unum" :::2d Brigade (Spartan) "Send Me" :::3d Brigade (Sledgehammer) "Not Pretty Just Tough" :::4th Brigade (Vanguard) ::10th Mountain Division (Light) — Fort Drum, New York :::1st Brigade :::2d Brigade :::3d Brigade :::27th Brigade (Orions) — New York National Guard ::82nd Airborne Division (All American)— Fort Bragg, North Carolina :::82d Aviation Brigade :::325th Airborne Infantry Regiment ::::1st Battalion 325th Airborne Infantry Regiment ::::2d Battalion 325th Airborne Infantry Regiment ::::3d Battalion 325th Airborne Infantry Regiment :::504th Parachute Infantry Regiment ::::1st Battalion 504th Parachute Infantry Regiment ::::2d Battalion 504th Parachute Infantry Regiment ::::3d Battalion 504th Parachute Infantry Regiment :::505th Parachute Infantry Regiment ::::1st Battalion 505th Parachute Infantry Regiment ::::2d Battalion 505th Parachute Infantry Regiment ::::3d Battalion 505th Parachute Infantry Regiment ::101st Airborne Division (Air Assault) (Screaming Eagles) — Fort Campbell, Kentucky :::101st Aviation Brigade :::159th Aviation Brigade :::327th Parchute Infantry Regiment ("Bastogne") :::1st Battalion 327th PIR :::2d Battalion 327th PIR :::3d Battalion 327th PIR :::502nd Parachute Infantry Regiment ("Strike") :::1st Battalion 502nd PIR :::2nd Battalion 502nd PIR :::3rd Battalion 502nd PIR :::187th Parachute Infantry Regiment ("Rakkasans") :::1st Battalion 187th PIR :::2nd Battalion 187th PIR :::3rd Battalion 187th PIR ::XVIII Airborne Corps Artillery :::18th Field Artillery Brigade ::2d Armored Cavalry Regiment ::leap year starting on Monday (link will take you to calendar).

March-April

- March 3 - In Sweden, a time bomb destroys the office of Norrskenflamman newspaper of Swedish communists - 5 dead
- March 5- Members of Soviet politburo: Stalin, Molotov, Lazar Kaganovich, Mikhail Kalinin, Kliment Voroshilov and Lavrenty Beria himself, signed prepared by Beria order of execution of 25,700 Polish intelligentsia, including 14,700 Polish POW, known also as Katyn massacre.
- March 12 - Soviet Union and Finland sign a peace treaty in Moscow ending the Winter War. Finns, and the World opinion, shocked by the harsh terms.
- March 18 - World War II: Axis powers - Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini meet at Brenner Pass in the Alps and agree to form an alliance against France and the United Kingdom.
- March 21 Édouard Daladier resigns as prime minister of France. He is replaced by Paul Reynaud.
- April 4 - Prime minister of Greece, Aleksandros Korizis, shoots himself - initial official explanation is "heart attack"
- April 7 - Booker T. Washington becomes the first African American to be depicted on a United States postage stamp.
- April 9 - World War II: Germany invades Denmark and Norway in operation Weserübung. The British campaign in Norway is simultaneously commenced.
- April 12 - The Faroe Islands were occupied by British troops following the invasion of Denmark by Nazi Germany. This action was taken to avert a possible German occupation of the islands, which would have had very grave consequences for the course of the Battle of the Atlantic.
- April 23 - Rhythm Night Club burns in Natchez, Mississippi - 198 dead

June

- June 4 - World War II: Dunkirk evacuation ends - British forces complete evacuating 300,000 troops from Dunkirk in France.
- June 9 - World War II: The British Commandos are created.
- June 10 - World War II: Italy declares war on France and the United Kingdom.
- June 10 - World War II: U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt denounces Italy's actions with [ftp://webstorage2.mcpa.virginia.edu/library/nara/fdr/audiovisual/speeches/fdr_1940_0610.mp3 "Stab in the Back"] speech from the graduation ceremonies of the University of Virginia.
- June 10 - World War II: German forces, under General Erwin Rommel, reach the English Channel.
- June 10 - World War II: Canada declares war on Italy.
- June 10 - World War II: Norway surrenders to German forces.
- June 12 - World War II: 13,000 British and French troops surrender to Field Marshal Erwin Rommel at St. Valery-en-Caux.
- June 14 - World War II: Paris falls under German occupation.
- June 14 - World War II: U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt signs the Naval Expansion Act into law which aims to increase the United States Navy's tonnage by 11 %.
- June 14 - Holocaust: A group of 728 Polish political prisoners from Tarnów become the first residents of the Auschwitz concentration camp.
- June 17 - The three Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania fall under the occupation of the Soviet Union.
- June 17 - World War II: Operation Ariel begins - Allied troops start to evacuate France, following Germany's takeover of Paris and most of the nation.
- June 17 - World War II: Luftwaffe Junkers 88 bomber sinks British ship RMS Lancastria, that was evacuating troops from near Saint-Nazaire, France. Death toll is over 2500. Wartime censorship prevents the story going public.
- June 23 - World War II: German leader Adolf Hitler surveys newly defeated Paris in now occupied France.[http://history1900s.about.com/library/holocaust/blhitler38.htm]

July-August

France
- July 5 - World War II: The United Kingdom and the Vichy France government break off diplomatic relations.
- July 10 - World War II: Vichy France government established. French national assembly votes full powers to Marshal Philippe Pétain
- July 10 - Tom Wintringham opens his own training school in Osterley Park for British Home Guard volunteers
- July 10 - World War II: Battle of Britain. Luftwaffe, the Air Force of Germany, in preparation for Operation Sealion begins to hit British convoys in the English Channel thus starting the battle (this start date is contested, though).
- July 14 - World War II: Andrew George Latta McNaughton takes command 7th Army Corps consisting of British, Canadian and New Zealand troops.
- July 21 - Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania are proclaimed to be "independent" Socialist republics.
- August 3 - Lithuania is officially incorporated in the Soviet Union as the Lithuanian SSR.
- August 5 - Latvia is officially incorporated in the Soviet Union as the Latvian SSR.
- August 6 - Estonia is officially incorporated in the Soviet Union as the Estonian SSR.
- August 20 - Ramón Mercader assassinates exiled Russian revolutionary Leon Trotsky in Mexico City with an ice-ax. Trotsky dies the next day.

September-October

Mexico City
- September 4 - World War II: The USS Greer becomes the first United States ship fired upon by a German submarine in the war, even though the United States is a neutral power. Tension heightens between the two nations as a result.
- September - U.S. Army 45th Infantry Division activated and ordered into federal service for one year to engage in a training program in Ft. Sill and Louisiana prior to serving in World War II.
- September 7 - Treaty of Craiova: Romania loses Southern Dobrudja to Bulgaria.
- September 7 - World War II: The Blitz - Nazi Germany begins to rain bombs on London. This will be the first of 57 consecutive nights of strategic bombing.
- September 12 - The Hercules Munitions Plant in Kenvil, New Jersey explodes, killing 55 people.
- October 9 - World War II: Battle of Britain - During a nighttime air raid by the German Luftwaffe, St. Paul's Cathedral is pierced by a bomb; Musician John Lennon is born during an air-raid in Liverpool, England.
- October 15 - First release of The Great Dictator, directed by Charlie Chaplin who is cast as fascist dictator Adenoid Hynkel, clearly modeled on Führer Adolf Hitler of Nazi Germany.
- October 28 - World War II: Italy invades Greece.
- October 31 - World War II: Battle of Britain ends - The United Kingdom prevents Germany from invading Britain.

November

- November 1 - French children discover Lascaux caves
- November 5 - U.S. presidential election, 1940: Democrat incumbent Franklin D. Roosevelt defeats Republican challenger Wendell Willkie and becomes the United States' first third-term president.
- November 7 - In Washington, the middle section of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge collapses in a windstorm, a mere four months after the bridge's completion (it opened to traffic on July 1, 1940 as the third-longest suspension bridge in the world).
- November 9 - Premiere of Joaquin Rodrigo's Concierto de Aranjuez in Barcelona, Spain.
- November 11 - World War II: Battle of Taranto - The Royal Navy launches the first aircraft carrier strike in history, on the Italian fleet at Taranto.
- November 11 - World War II: The German Hilfskreuzer (cruiser) Atlantis captures top secret British mail, and sends it to Japan
- November 11 - Armistice Day Blizzard: An unexpected blizzard kills 144 in U.S. Midwest.
- November 14 - World War II: In England, the city of Coventry is destroyed by 500 German Luftwaffe bombers (150,000 fire bombs, 503 tons of high explosives, 130 parachute mines leveled 60,000 of the city's 75,000 buildings; 568 people were killed).
- November 16 - World War II: In response to Germany leveling Coventry two days before, the Royal Air Force begins to bomb Hamburg (by war's end, 50,000 Hamburg residents died from Allied attacks).
- November 16 - Unexploded pipe bomb founded in Consolidated Edison office building (only years later the culprit, George Metesky, is apprehended
- November 18 - World War II: German leader Adolf Hitler and Italian Foreign Minister Galeazzo Ciano meet to discuss Benito Mussolini's disastrous invasion of Greece.
- November 20 - World War II: Hungary, Romania and Slovakia join the Axis Powers.
- November 27 - In Romania, coup leader General Ion Antonescu's Iron Guard arrests and executes over 60 of exiled king Carol II of Romania's aides. Among the dead is former minister and acclaimed historian Nicolae Iorga.
- November 27 - World War II: Royal Navy and Regia Marina fight the Battle of Cape Spartivento.

December

- December 30 - California's first modern freeway, the future California State Route 110, is opened to traffic in Pasadena, California, as the Arroyo Seco Parkway. It is now called the Pasadena Freeway.

Unknown Date

- Guilin, China, acquires current name.

Ongoing Events

- Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945)
- World War II (1939 - 1945).

Births

January-February

- January 4 - Brian David Josephson, Welsh physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- January 4 - Gao Xingjian, Chinese-born writer, Nobel Prize laureate
- January 6 - Penny Lernoux, American journalist and author (d. 1989)
- January 14 - Julian Bond, American civil rights activist
- January 20 - Carol Heiss, American figure skater
- January 22 - John Hurt, English actor
- February 2 - David Jason, English actor
- February 3 - Fran Tarkenton, American football player
- February 4 - George Romero, American film writer, producer, and director
- February 5 - H.R. Giger, Swiss artist
- February 6 - Tom Brokaw, American television news reporter
- February 6 - Jimmy Tarbuck, English comedian
- February 8 - Ted Koppel, American journalist
- February 8 - Joe South, American singer and songwriter
- February 9 - J. M. Coetzee, South African writer, Nobel Prize laureate
- February 12 - Richard Lynch, American actor
- February 19 - Smokey Robinson, American musician
- February 20 - Jimmy Greaves, English footballer
- February 21 - James Wong, Hong Kong composer (d. 2004)
- February 23 - Peter Fonda, American actor
- February 24 - Denis Law, Scottish footballer
- February 25 - Ron Santo, baseball player
- February 28 - Mario Andretti, American race car driver
- February 29 - Edward Frederic Benson, American writer

March-April

- March 3 - Germán Castro Caycedo, Colombian writer and journalist.
- March 6 - Willie Stargell, baseball player (d. 2001)
- March 7 - Rudi Dutschke, German student leader (d. 1979)
- March 9 - Raúl Juliá, Puerto Rican actor (d. 1994)
- March 10 - Chuck Norris, American actor and martial artist
- March 12 - Al Jarreau, American singer
- March 15 - Phil Lesh, American musician (Grateful Dead)
- March 16 - Bernardo Bertolucci, Italian writer and film director
- March 16 - Chuck Woolery, American game show host
- March 17 - Mark White, Governor of Texas
- March 22 - Haing S. Ngor, Cambodian actor (d. 1996)
- March 25 - Anita Bryant, American entertainer
- March 26 - Spiridon Louis, Greek runner
- March 27 - Cale Yarborough, American race car driver
- March 29 - Ray Davis, American musician (P-Funk)
- March 30 - Astrud Gilberto, Brazilian-born singer
- April 1 - Wangari Maathai, Kenyan environmentalist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize
- April 2 - Penelope Keith, English actress
- April 12 - Herbie Hancock, American musician
- April 16 - Queen Margrethe II of Denmark
- April 18 - Joseph L. Goldstein, American scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- April 20 - George Takei, American actor
- April 25 - Al Pacino, American actor
- April 26 - Giorgio Moroder, Austrian film composer

May-July

- May 1 - Elsa Peretti, Italian jewelry designer
- May 8 - Ricky Nelson, American singer (d. 1985)
- May 9 - James L. Brooks, American film producer and writer
- May 11 - Juan Downey, Chilean-born video artist (d. 1993)
- May 17 - Alan Kay, American computer scientist
- May 20 - Stan Mikita, Slovakian-born hockey player
- May 20 - Sadaharu Oh, Japanese baseball player
- May 22 - Bernard Shaw, American journalist and television news reporter
- May 24 - Joseph Brodsky, Russian-born poet, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1996)
- May 29 - Farooq Leghari, President of Pakistan
- June - Carole Ann Ford, British actress
- June 1 - René Auberjonois, American actor
- June 2 - King Constantine II of Greece
- June 16 - Neil Goldschmidt, Governor of Oregon
- June 17 - George Akerlof, American economist, Nobel Prize laureate
- June 20 - John Mahoney, English-born actor
- June 21 - Mariette Hartley, American actress
- June 23 - Adam Faith, English singer and actor (d. 2003)
- June 23 - Lord Irvine of Lairg, Lord Chancellor of England
- June 23 - Wilma Rudolph, American athelete (d. 1994)
- June 25 - A.J. Quinnell, English writer (d. 2005)
- July 3 - César Tovar, Venezuelan Major League Baseball player (d. 1994)
- July 7 - Ringo Starr, English drummer (The Beatles)
- July 10 - Gene Alley, baseball player
- July 10 - Helen Donath, American soprano
- July 13 - Patrick Stewart, English actor
- July 18 - Joe Torre, baseball player and manager
- July 22 - Alex Trebek, Canadian game show host
- July 24 - Stanley Hauerwas, American theologian
- July 26 - Mary Jo Kopechne, American aide to Robert F. Kennedy (d. 1969)
- July 27 - Bharati Mukherjee, Indian-born novelist

August-December

- August 3 - Martin Sheen, American actor
- August 7 - Jean-Luc Dehaene, Prime Minister of Belgium
- August 9 - Beverlee McKinsey, American actress
- August 10 - Bobby Hatfield, American singer (Righteous Brothers) (d. 2003)
- August 20 - Rubén Hinojosa, American politician
- August 25 - José Van Dam, Belgian bass-baritone
- September 5 - Raquel Welch, American actress
- September 10 - David Mann, American artist (d. 2004)
- September 12 - Mickey Lolich, baseball player
- September 14 - Larry Brown, American basketball coach
- September 13 - Óscar Arias, Costa Rican politician, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize
- October 9 - John Lennon, English musician and singer (The Beatles) (d. 1980)
- October 13 - Pharaoh Sanders, American saxophonist
- October 14 - Cliff Richard, English singer
- October 15 - Peter Doherty, Australian immunologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- October 19 - Michael Gambon, Irish actor
- October 23 - Pelé, Brazilian footballer
- October 25 - Bobby Knight, American basketball coach
- November 1 - Ramesh Chandra Lahoti, Chief Justice of India
- November 15 - Sam Waterston, American actor
- November 21 - Richard Marcinko, U.S. Navy SEAL team member and author
- November 25 - Joe Gibbs, American football coach
- November 27 - Bruce Lee, American martial artist and actor (d. 1973)
- December 1 - Richard Pryor, American actor and comedian (d. 2005)
- December 4 - Gary Gilmore, American murderer
- December 5 - Peter Pohl, Swedish writer
- December 12 - Sharad Pawar, Indian politician
- December 12 - Dionne Warwick, American singer
- December 21 - Frank Zappa, American musician, composer, and satirist (d. 1993)
- December 22 - Noel Jones, British Ambassador to Kazakhstan (d. 1995)
- December 26 - Edward C. Prescott, American economist, Nobel Prize laureate

Deaths

- January 4 - Flora Finch, English-born actress and comedienne (b. 1869)
- January 18 - Kazimierz Tetmajer, Polish poet and writer (b. 1865)
- January 27 - Isaac Babel, Ukrainian writer (b. 1894)
- February 11 - John Buchan, 1st Baron Tweedsmuir, Governor General of Canada (b. 1875)
- March 10 - Mikhaïl Boulgakov, Russian writer (b. 1891)
- March 16 - Selma Lagerlöf, Swedish writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1858)
- March 20 - Alfred Ploetz, German physician, biologist, and eugenicist (b. 1860)
- March 31 - Tinsley Lindley, English footballer (b. 1865)
- April 26 - Carl Bosch, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1874)
- May 15 - Menno ter Braak, Dutch writer (b. 1902)
- May 20 - Verner von Heidenstam, Swedish writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1859)
- May 25 - Joe De Grasse, Canadian film director (b. 1873)
- May 28 - Prince Frederick Charles of Hesse (b. 1868)
- June 10 - Marcus Garvey, Jamaican-born publisher, entrepreneur, and black nationalist (b. 1887)
- June 17 - Arthur Harden, English chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1865)
- June 21 - Smedley Butler, U.S. general (b. 1881)
- June 29 - Paul Klee, Swiss artist (b. 1879)
- July 4 - Robert Pershing Wadlow, tallest man in the world (infection) (b. 1918)
- August 8 - Johnny Dodds, American jazz clarinettist (b. 1892)
- August 18 - Walter Chrysler, American automobile pioneer (b. 1875)
- August 21 - Leon Trotsky, Russian revolutionary (b. 1879)
- August 22 - Mary Vaux Walcott, American artist and naturalist (b. 1860)
- August 30 - J.J. Thomson, English physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1856)
- September 27 - Julius Wagner-Jauregg, Austrian neuroscientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1857)
- October 10 - Berton Churchill, Canadian actor (b. 1876)
- November 9 - Neville Chamberlain, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1869)
- December 5 - Jan Kubelík, Czech violinist (b. 1880)
- December 19 - Kyösti Kallio, President of Finland (b. 1873)
- December 21 - F. Scott Fitzgerald, American writer (b. 1896)
- December 25 - Agnes Ayres, American actress (b. 1898)

Date unknown

- December - Raymond Pearl, American biologist (b. 1879)

Nobel Prizes

- Physics - not awarded
- Chemistry - not awarded
- Physiology or Medicine - not awarded
- Literature - not awarded
- Peace - not awarded
- ko:1940년 ms:1940 ja:1940年 simple:1940 th:พ.ศ. 2483

Training

:For alternative meanings see training (disambiguation) Training refers to the acquisition of knowledge, skills, attitudes as a result of the teaching of vocational or practical skills and knowledge and relates to specific useful skills. It forms the core of apprenticeships and provides the backbone of content at technical colleges or polytechnics. Today it is often referred to as professional development. Sporting training appears more mechanistic: planned suites of regimes develop specific skills or muscles with a view to peaking at a particular time. A specialized field of training often used in sports is autogenic training. Training & Development is the field concerned with workplace learning to improve performance. In military use, training means gaining the physical ability to perform and survive in combat, and learning the many skills needed in a time of war. These include how to use a variety of weapons, outdoor survival skills, and how to survive capture by the enemy, among others. It can include specialties, such as parachuting, flying an airplane, SCUBA diving, operating high-tech weapons, intelligence gathering, navigating at sea, and many others. Once the desired abilities have been learned, on-going training means to drill and keep in shape in case of deployment orders (i.e. the same as exercise, only it's for military units). Category:Education ja:訓練

1946

1946 (MCMXLVI) was a common year starting on Tuesday. (see link for calendar)

Events

January

- January 4 - Theodore Schurch becomes the last person to be executed for offences committed under the Treachery Act of 1940
- January 7 - Allied recognize Austrian republic with 1937 borders - the country is divided into four occupation zones
- January 10 - First meeting of the United Nations
- January 11 - Enver Hoxha declares the people's republic of Albania with himself as prime minister.
- January 11 - Porfirio Barba-Jacob's ashes go back to Colombia.
- January 16 - Charles de Gaulle resigns as a head of a French provisional government
- January 17
- The UN Security Council holds its first session
- Senator Dennis Chavez (D-NM) calls for a vote on an FEPC bill which called for the end to discrimination in the work place. A filibuster prevents it from passing.
- January 20 - Charles De Gaulle resigns as president of France
- January 25 - The United Mine Workers rejoins the American Federation of Labor
- January 28 - Bluenose founders on a Haitian reef
- January 29 - CIA established
- January 31 - Yugoslavia's new constitution, modeling the Soviet Union, establishes six constituent republics (Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia and Slovenia).

February

February
- February 1 - Trygve Lie of Norway is picked to be the first United Nations Secretary General.
- February 2 - Kingdom of Hungary becomes a republic.
- February 14 - The Bank of England nationalized
- February 14 - ENIAC (for "Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer"), the first general-purpose electronic computer, is unveiled at the University of Pennsylvania
- February 15 - Canada indicts 22 communist agents.
- February 24 - Juan Peron elected president of Argentina
- February 28 - In Philadelphia, strikers of General Electric and police clash

March

- March 2 - British troops withdraw from Iran according to treaty - Soviets do not.
- March 2 - Ho Chi Minh elected the President of North Vietnam
- March 4 - C.G.E. Mannerheim resigns from the post of president of Finland
- March 5 - In his speech in Fulton, Missouri, Winston Churchill talks about Iron Curtain.
- March 6 - Vietnam War: Ho Chi Minh signs an agreement with France which recognizes Vietnam as an autonomous state in the Indochinese Federation and the French Union. David Gilmour, the guitarist of Pink Floyd is born.
- March 9 - Juho Kusti Paasikivi becomes president of Finland
- March 10 - British troops begin withdrawal from Lebanon
- March 15 - Clement Attlee promises independence to India as soon as they can agree on constitution
- March 19 - Soviet Union and Switzerland reform diplomatic relations.
- March 19 - French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique and Réunion become overseas départements of France
- March 22 - Transjordan gains independence
- March 29 - Gold Coast has an African majority in the parliament

April

- April 1 - 14-meter high tsunami strikes Hilo, Hawaii - 173 dead, thousands injured.
- April 1 - Formation of the Malayan Union.
- April 1 - Singapore becomes a Crown colony
- April 3 - Japanese Lt. General Masaharu Homma is executed outside Manila in the Philippines for leading the Bataan Death March.
- April 7 - Syria's independence from France is officially recognised
- April 10 - In Japan, women vote for the first time in parliamentarian elections
- April 18 - USA recognizes Josip Broz Tito's government in Yugoslavia
- April 18 - Last meeting of League of Nations – it transfers its mission to United Nations and disbands itself.
- April 29 - Trial against war criminals begin in Tokyo – accused include Hideki Tojo, Shigenori Togo and Hiroshi Oshima.

May

- May 4 - Paris Wine Tasting of 1976 revolutionizes wine world.
- May 2 - Six prisoners unsuccessfully try to escape from the Alcatraz prison island
- May 7 - Tokyo Telecommunications Engineering (later renamed Sony) is founded with about 20 employees.
- May 9 - King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy abdicates, and is succeeded by his son Humbert II.
- May 10 - Nehru elected leader of the Congress Party in India
- May 20 - In Britain, the House of Commons decides to nationalize mines.
- May 21 - Radiation accident in Los Alamos laboratory; Dr Louis Slotin saves his coworkers but receives a fatal dose of radiation. Incident is initially classified
- May 22 - Kingdom of Transjordan founded.
- May 25 - The parliament of Transjordan makes emir Abdullah their king.
- May 31 - Greece referendum supports return of monarchy

June-July

- June 2 - In a referendum Italians decide to turn Italy from a monarchy into a Republic. After this referendum the king of Italy Umberto II di Savoia was exiled. Women vote for the first time.
- June 6 - The Basketball Association of America is formed in New York City.
- June 8 - In Indonesia, Sukarno incites his supporters to fight Dutch colonial occupation
- June 9 - In Thailand, king Rama IX accedes the throne.
- June 10 - Italy declared republic
- June 13 - Humbert II of Italy leaves the country and goes into exile in Portugal; Alcide de Gasperi becomes head of state.
- June 17 - Tornado on the Detroit river - 17 dead
- July 4 - After over 425 years of Western Dominance , the Philippines achieves full independence.
- July 5 - Bikinis go on sale in Paris
- July 7 - Mother Frances Xavier Cabrini becomes the first American saint to be canonized.
- July 21 - Irgun bomb explodes in Jerusalem.
- July 22 - King David Hotel bombing: Irgun bombs King David Hotel in Jerusalem, headquarters of the British civil and military administration killing 90.
- July 25 - Nuclear testing: In the first underwater test of the atomic bomb, the surplus USS Saratoga is sunk near Bikini Atoll in the Pacific Ocean when the United States detonates the "Baker Day" device.
- July 25 - At Club 500 in Atlantic City, New Jersey, Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis stage their first show as a comedy team.

August-November

November
- August 19 - Violence between Muslims and Hindus in Calcutta – 3000 dead.
- August 25 - Ben Hogan wins PGA Championship
- September 4 - Street violence between Muslims and Hindus in Bombay.
- September 8 - Bulgaria declared a People's Republic after a referendum – King Simeon II leaves.
- September 28 - George II of Greece returns to Athens
- October 2 - Communists take over in Bulgaria
- October 13 - France adopts the constitution of the Fourth Republic.
- October 15 - Nuremberg Trials: Founder of the Gestapo and recently convicted Nazi war criminal, Hermann Göring, poisons himself hours before his scheduled execution.
- October 23 - United Nations' first meeting in Long Island.
- November 8 - Vietnamese riot in Haiphong and clash with French troops. French cruiser Suffren opens fire. 6000 Vietnamese killed.
- November 12 - Truce between Indonesian nationalist troops and Dutch army in Indonesia.
- November 12 - A branch of the Exchange National Bank in Chicago, Illinois opens the first ten drive-up teller windows.
- November 15 - Netherlands recognized Republic of Indonesia.
- November 19 - Afghanistan, Iceland and Sweden joins the United Nations
- November 27 - Cold War: Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru appeals to the United States and the Soviet Union to end nuclear testing and to start nuclear disarmament, stating that such an action would "save humanity from the ultimate disaster."

December

- December 11 - UNICEF founded.
- December 12 - United Nations severs relations with Franco's Spain and recommends the member countries to sever diplomatic relations
- December 12 - Leon Blum founds a government of socialist parties in France
- December 19 - Martial law in Vietnam
- December 22 - Havana Conference begins between US organized crime bosses in Havana, Cuba
- December 24 - France's Fourth Republic founded
- December 26 - Flamingo Hotel opens in Las Vegas.
- December 31 - President Harry Truman officially proclaims an end of hostilities in World War II.

Unknown dates

- The 20mm M61 Vulcan gatling gun is invented.
- Devil's Island penal colony closes permanently.
- Female suffrage in Belgium, Romania, Yugoslavia, Argentina and Canadian province of Quebec. First female police officers in Korea and Japan.
- Chinese Civil War intensifies between Kuomintang and Communist Party of China.
- First Tupperware sold in department and hardware stores.
- Grantley Adams becomes the premier of Barbados.
- Alcatraz Island prison riot.
- The British government takes emergency powers to deal with the balance-of-payments crisis.
- Eva Perón tours Spain, Italy and France on behalf of Argentina, a circuit called the Rainbow Tour.
- Breathalyzer machine for estimating blood alcohol concentration was invented.
- Howard Hyde Russell established the Anti-Saloon League.
- George Orwell writes Politics and the English Language

Births

January

- January 3 - John Paul Jones, English bassist (Led Zeppelin)
- January 5 - Diane Keaton, American actress
- January 6 - Syd Barrett, English guitarist and singer
- January 8 - Stanton Peele, American psychologist
- January 8 - Robby Krieger, American musician (The Doors)
- January 11 - Naomi Judd, American singer
- January 11 - John Piper, American theologian
- January 12 - George Duke, American musician
- January 14 - Harold Shipman, British serial killer
- January 16 - Kabir Bedi, Indian actor
- January 16 - Katia Ricciarelli, Italian singer
- January 18 - Joseph Deiss, Swiss Federal Councilor
- January 19 - Dolly Parton, American singer and actress
- January 20 - David Lynch, American film director
- January 21 - Johnny Oates, baseball player and manager (d. 2004)
- January 22 - Serge Savard, Canadian hockey player and executive
- January 24 - Michael Ontkean, Canadian actor
- January 26 - Gene Siskel, American film critic (d. 1999)
- January 31 - Terry Kath, American musician (d. 1978)

February-March

- February 6 - Jim Turner, American politician
- February 13 - Colin Matthews, British composer
- February 14 - Bernard Dowiyogo, President of Nauru (d. 2003)
- February 14 - Gregory Hines, American dancer and actor (d. 2003)
- February 19 - Karen Silkwood, American activist (d. 1974)
- February 20 - Brenda Blethyn, English actress
- February 21 - Tyne Daly, American actress
- February 21 - Alan Rickman, English actor
- February 24 - Barry Bostwick, American actor
- February 25 - Franz Xaver Kroetz, German dramatist
- February 26 - Ahmed H. Zewail, Egyptian chemist, Nobel Prize laureate
- February 28 - Robin Cook, British politician (d. 2005)
- March 3 - Leszek Miller, Prime Minister of Poland
- March 6 - David Gilmour, English musician (Pink Floyd)
- March 7 - Peter Wolf, American musician (J Geils Band)
- March 8 - Linda Kelliher Samets, American entrepreneur
- March 12 - Liza Minnelli, American singer and actress
- March 15 - Bobby Bonds, baseball player and manager (d. 2003)
- March 17 - Georges J.F. Kohler, German biologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1995)
- March 21 - Timothy Dalton, Welsh actor
- March 31 - Gonzalo Márquez, Venezuelan Major League Baseball player (d. 1984)

April-May

- April 4 - Dave Hill, English guitarist (Slade)
- April 7 - Colette Besson, French runner
- April 12 - Ed O'Neill, American actor
- April 16 - Margot Adler, American journalist
- April 19 - Tim Curry, British actor, vocalist, and composer
- April 25 - John Fox, British statistician
- April 25 - Talia Shire, American actress
- April 30 - King Carl XVI Gustav of Sweden
- May 7 - Thelma Houston, American singer
- May 9 - Candice Bergen, American actress
- May 10 - Donovan Leitch, Scottish musician
- May 10 - Dave Mason, English musician (Traffic)
- May 11 - Robert Jarvik, American physicist and inventor
- May 17 - Udo Lindenberg, German musician
- May 18 - Reggie Jackson, baseball player
- May 19 - André the Giant, French professional wrestling (d. 1993)
- May 19 - Claude Lelièvre, Belgian Commissioner for Children Rights
- May 20 - Cher, American actress and singer
- May 22 - George Best, Irish footballer (d. 2005)
- May 23 - Frederik de Groot, Dutch actor
- May 26 - Mick Ronson, American guitarist (d. 1993)
- May 28 - K. Satchidanandan Malayalam poet
- May 29 - Fernando Buesa, Basque politician (d. 2000)
- May 30 - Candy Lightner, American founder of Mothers Against Drunk Driving

June-July

- June 6 - Peter Sutcliffe, English serial killer
- June 8 - Pearlette Louisy, Governor-General of St. Lucia
- June 12 - Harry Glasper, Football historian
- June 14 - Donald Trump, American real estate magnate
- June 15 - Noddy Holder, English singer (Slade)
- June 20 - Xanana Gusmao, first President of East Timor
- June 23 - Kathy Wilkes, English philosopher
- June 24 - Ellison Onizuka, astronaut (d. 1986)
- June 29 - Egon von Furstenberg, Swiss fashion designer (d. 2004)
- July 2 - Richard Axel, American scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- July 4 - Ed O'Ross, American actor
- July 6 - George Walker Bush, 43rd President of the United States
- July 6 - Sylvester Stallone, American actor
- July 9 - Bon Scott, Australian singer (AC/DC) (d. 1980)
- July 13 - Cheech Marin, American actor and comedian
- July 14 - John Wood, Australian actor
- July 15 - Linda Ronstadt, American singer and songwriter
- July 16 - Ron Yary, American football player
- July 22 - Danny Glover, American actor
- July 22 - Mireille Mathieu, French singer
- July 25 - Rita Marley, Jamaican singer
- July 30 - Neil Bonnett, American race car driver (d. 1994)

August

- August 3 - Jack Straw, British politician
- August 19 - Bill Clinton, 42nd President of the United States
- August 19 - Beat Raaflaub, Swiss conductor
- August 20 - Ralf Hütter, German singer and musician (Kraftwerk)
- August 20 - N.R. Narayana Murthy, Indian businessman
- August 23 - Keith Moon, English drummer (The Who) (d. 1978)
- August 25 - Rollie Fingers, baseball player
- August 29 - Bob Beamon, American athlete

September

- September 4 - Gary Duncan, American guitarist (Quicksilver Messenger Service)
- September 4 - Greg Elmore, American drummer (Quicksilver Messenger Service)
- September 5 - Freddie Mercury, Zanzibar-born singer (Queen) (d. 1991)
- September 7 - Willie Crawford, baseball player (d. 2004)
- September 7 - Francisco Varela, Chilean biologist (d. 2001)
- September 9 - Bruce Palmer, Canadian musician (Buffalo Springfield) (d. 2004)
- September 10 - Jim Hines, American athlete
- September 10 - Don Powell, English drummer
- September 15 - Tommy Lee Jones, American actor
- September 15 - Oliver Stone, American film director
- September 21 - Moritz Leuenberger, Swiss Federal Councilor
- September 23 - Franz Fischler, Austrian politician
- September 24 - Lars Emil Johansen, Prime Minister of Greenland
- September 26 - Christine Todd Whitman, American politician
- September 30 - Héctor Lavoe, Puerto Rican singer (d. 1993)

October

- October 1 - Tim O'Brien, American author
- October 6 - Lloyd Doggett, American politician
- October 6 - Renate Holub, German philosopher
- October 7 - Xue Jinghua, Chinese ballerina
- October 7 - Catharine MacKinnon, American feminist
- October 8 - Hanan Ashrawi, Palestinian scholar
- October 8 - John T. Walton, son of Wal-Mart founder Sam Walton (d. 2005)
- October 9 - Tansu Ciller, Turkish politician
- October 10 - Anne Boyd, Australian musician
- October 10 - Naoto Kan, Japanese politician
- October 11 - Leona Gom, Canadian writer
- October 13 - Edwina Currie, English politician
- October 13 - Dorothy Moore, American singer
- October 14 - Justin Hayward, English singer and songwriter (Moody Blues)
- October 14 - Kay Redfield Jamison, American psychologist
- October 15 - Marsha Hunt, American singer and novelist
- October 16 - Suzanne Somers, American actress
- October 16 - Elizabeth Witmer, Dutch-born politician
- October 17 - Vicki Hodge, English actress
- October 17 - Bob Seagren, American athlete and actor
- October 18 - Howard Shore, Canadian film composer
- October 18 - Andrea Zsadon, Hungarian soprano
- October 20 - Elfriede Jelinek, Austrian writer, Nobel Prize laureate
- October 20 - Andrea Mitchell, American journalist
- October 21 - Lyn Allison, Australian politician
- October 22 - Eileen Gordon, British politician
- October 24 - Gwyneth Powell, British actress
- October 25 - Edith Leyrer, Austrian actress
- October 26 - Pat Sajak, American game show host
- October 27 - Leslie L. Byrne, American politician
- October 27 - Ivan Reitman, Slovakian-born film director and producer
- October 27 - Carrie Snodgress, American actress (d. 2004)
- October 28 - Sharon Thesen, Canadian poet
- October 29 - Kathryn J. Whitmire, Mayor of Houston, Texas
- October 30 - Lynne Marta, American actress
- October 31 - Caroline Jackson, British politician

November

- November 1 - Marina Abramovic, Yugoslavian performance artist
- November 1 - Lynne Russell, American newsreader
- November 2 - Giuseppe Sinopoli, Italian conductor and composer (d. 2001)
- November 4 - Laura Bush, First Lady of the United States
- November 5 - Herman Brood, Dutch artist (d. 2001)
- November 5 - Loleatta Holloway, American singer
- November 5 - Gram Parsons, American musician
- November 6 - Sally Field, American actress
- November 7 - Diane Francis, Canadian journalist
- November 7 - Martin Barre, Musician (Jethro Tull)
- November 8 - Stella Chiweshe, Zimbabwe musician
- November 10 - Alaina Reed Hall, American actress
- November 11 - Corrine Brown, American politician
- November 12 - P.P. Arnold, English singer
- November 13 - Ohara Reiko, Japanese actess
- November 14 - Carola Dunn, English writer
- November 15 - Sandy Skoglund, American photographer
- November 17 - Petra Burka, Canadian figure skater
- November 18 - Andrea Allan, Scottish actress
- November 18 - Amanda Lear, Hong Kong singer
- November 19 - Terry Baum, American playwright
- November 20 - Greg Cook, American football player
- November 20 - Judy Woodruff, American television personality
- November 21 - Emma Cohen, Spanish actress
- November 21 - Pam Freeman, American actress
- November 21 - Chaviva Hosek, Czech-born feminist
- November 21 - Ulla Jessen, Danish actress
- November 21 - Jacky Lafon, Belgian actress
- November 21 - Marina Warner, English writer
- November 22 - Anne Wheeler, Canadian television and film director
- November 24 - Ted Bundy, American serial killer (d. 1989)
- November 25 - Marika Lindstrom, Swedish actress
- November 26 - Ottilia Borbath, Romanian actress
- November 27 - Nina Maslova, Russian actress
- November 28 - Regina Braga, Brazilian actress
- November 29 - Suzy Chaffee, American singer and actress
- November 30 - Barbara Cubin, U.S. Congresswoman from Wyoming

December

- December 2 - Gulsun Karamustafa, Turkish artist and film director
- December 2 - Gianni Versace, Italian fashion designer (d. 1997)
- December 3 - Marjana Lipovsek, Slovenian singer and actress
- December 3 - Joop Zoetemelk, Dutch cyclist
- December 4 - Sherry Alberoni, American actress
- December 4 - Angela Browning, British politician
- December 4 - You Inoue, Japanese voice actress (d. 2003)
- December 5 - José Carreras, Spanish tenor
- December 5 - Eva-Britt Svensson, Swedish politician
- December 6 - Chelsea Brown, American actress
- December 8 - Jacques Bourboulon, French photographer
- December 8 - Sharmila Tagore, Indian actress
- December 9 - Sonia Gandhi, Indian politician
- December 10 - Chrystos, American poet
- December 11 - Ellen Meloy, American writer (d. 2004)
- December 12 - Gloria Loring, American singer
- December 14 - Jane Birkin, English actress and singer
- December 14 - Patty Duke, American actress
- December 16 - Alice Aycock, American sculptor
- December 17 - Bel Mooney, English broadcast journalist
- December 18 - Nina Skottova, Czech politician and member of the European Parliament
- December 18 - Steven Spielberg, American film director
- December 19 - Candace Pert, American nueroscientist
- December 20 - Lesley Judd, English actress and television presenter
- December 20 - Dick Wolf, American television producer
- December 21 - Carl Wilson, American musician (d. 1998)
- December 23 - Edita Gruberova, Slovakian soprano
- December 24 - Roselyne Bachelot-Narquin, French pharmacist and politician and member of the European Parliament
- December 26 - Joyce Jillson, American astrologer (d. 2004)
- December 27 - Janet Street Porter, English broadcast journalist
- December 27 - Polly Toynbee, English journalist and writer
- December 29 - Marianne Faithfull, English singer and actress
- December 29 - Ruth Shady, Peruvian archaeologist
- December 30 - Patti Smith, American poet and singer
-

Delta Air Lines

Delta Air Lines (OTC Pink Sheets: DALRQ) is a major U.S. airline headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia, operating a large domestic and international network that spans North America, South America, Europe, Asia, and the Caribbean. Delta operates hubs at Atlanta, Cincinnati, and Salt Lake City. Delta also has large operations in many other cities, including Boston, Los Angeles, New York, Orlando, Columbus, OH, and Washington, D.C. Delta is also the leading carrier in Florida. Its major international gateways are Atlanta, Cincinnati, and New York-JFK. In early 2005, Delta closed its Dallas-Fort Worth International Airport hub. In terms of passengers carried (87 million in 2004), Delta is the second-largest airline in the world (behind American Airlines). In terms of total operating revenues, Delta is the fourth-largest airline in the world (behind Air France-KLM, American Airlines, and United Airlines) As of September 1, 2005, Delta (including its wholly owned subsidiary, Comair, Inc.) served 178 domestic cities in 46 states, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands, as well as 58 international cities in 35 countries.

Business Structure

Delta Air Lines, Inc. is incorporated under the laws of the State of Delaware. As of January, 2004, Gerald Grinstein is the Chief Executive Officer. Delta operates several airline brands. The "mainline" Delta brand serves primarily long-haul, high-volume flights and most international services. Short-haul, high frequency service between Boston, New York, and Washington, D.C., are operated in a single-class configuration under the Delta Shuttle brand. The Delta brand Song began single-class service on April 15, 2003. The service was created by Delta to compete directly against jetBlue. Song's branding has proven successful in the Northeast-Florida market where it is seen as a "chic" alternative to its mainline brand, placing live satellite TVs at each seat, buy-on-board gourmet meals, and martinis prepared right at your seat. Delta announced in November, 2005, that it would fold Song into its mainline operation during 2006. Unofficially, Song was losing money; however, it proved to be a successful laboratory for testing service concepts to incorporate into the larger Delta operation. "Song" will remain as a brand of service on Delta aircraft, initially for transcontinental and other flights over 1,750 miles. Separate regional airlines operate feeder flights, under brand-marketing and code share agreements, primarily to Delta hub cities under the Delta Connection banner. These airlines include wholly-owned subsidiary Comair, as well as independent carriers Chautauqua Airlines, Shuttle America (both subsidiaries of Republic Airways), SkyWest (a subsidiary of SkyWest, Inc.), Atlantic Southeast Airlines (a former Delta wholly-owned subsidiary acquired by SkyWest, Inc. in 2005), and Freedom Airways (a subsidiary of Mesa Airlines). American Eagle which performs regional operations for American Airlines is also considered a Delta Connection Carrier on certain routes in Southern California, however American Eagle operates independently under its own banner codesharing with Delta. Of all major U.S. airlines, Delta is the least unionized. As of September 1, 2005, Delta had a total of 52,000 full-time equivalent employees, of which only 18% were represented by unions. Delta awards the annual Delta Prize for Global Understanding in conjunction with the University of Georgia.

History

University of Georgia The company has its roots in Huff Daland Dusters, which was founded in 1924 in Macon, Georgia by several partners including Collett E. Woolman becoming the world's first aerial crop dusting company. Huff Daland moved to Monroe, Louisiana the following year. In 1928, Huff Daland Dusters was purchased by C.E. Woolman and renamed 'Delta Air Services' after the Mississippi Delta, where its route connected Dallas, Texas to Jackson, Mississippi, via Shreveport, Louisiana and Monroe. By 1934, Delta Air began mail service from Charleston to Fort Worth, including Atlanta, Augusta and other stops in Georgia. In 1941, Delta moved its headquarters from Monroe to Atlanta, Georgia, to center itself along its new route network that connected Chicago and New Orleans to Florida and Ohio which would later become a Delta hub. Ohio In the 1950s, Delta began flights from New Orleans to the Caribbean and Venezuela, becoming the number 2 U.S. carrier in the region after Pan Am and Braniff. On May 1, 1953, Delta merged with Chicago and Southern to expand routes in Midwest. In 1955 Delta introduced the "hub and spoke system" where flights are routed to a central point then sent out to other cities. By the early 1960s, Delta's route network stretched to the West Coast, and Dallas was emerging as its second hub city. Delta became the launch operateor of the DC-8, which began service in 1959, and the Convair CV-880 in 1960. The DC-8's graceful swept-wing design inspired Delta to come up with a new logo which incorporated a new red, white, and blue triangle logo (the "widget"). Just a few years later, Delta became the launch operator of the DC-9. By 1970, Delta was an all jet aircraft airline. Delta purchased Northeast Airlines in 1972 to strengthen its market share in the northeastern United States. Through the purchase, Delta began its long 727 operation. In 1970, Delta entered the "wide-body" jet era with a purchase of five Boeing 747s to service its new long-haul high density routes. However, Delta found no need for them and sold them a few years later. Shorty thereafter, Delta leased a small number of DC-10s as a stopgap until its larger order of the new Lockheed L-1011 TriStars could be delivered. In 1973 the TriStar entered service for Delta. In 1978, Delta began flying from Atlanta to London with new Lockheed L-1011 TriStar aircraft: Frankfurt was added the following year. Delta's fast growth showed well in August 1979 when it became the first airline in the world to board one million passengers in one city in one month (Atlanta). Delta launched its first frequent flyer program in 1981 which became the SkyMiles program in 1995. In 1982, Delta took delivery of their first 767-200, named the Spirit of Delta, which was paid for "by voluntary contributions from employees, retirees and Delta's community partners. The effort, called Project 767, was spearheaded by three Delta flight attendants to show the employees' appreciation to Delta for solid management and strong leadership during the first years following airline deregulation." [http://www.l1011.homestead.com/SpirtofDL.html] The airplane remains the flagship of the Delta fleet, and was repainted in a commemorative paint scheme and toured the country to celebrate the airline's 75th anniversary in 2004. [http://www.bizjournals.com/atlanta/stories/2004/04/19/daily67.html] In 1984 the company established its Delta Connection partnership linking local "feeder" airlines that served mid-size population areas to Delta nodes. The same year, Delta began its first flight to Hawaii (PHNL) with L-1011 aircraft. Through more inovations and a focus on customer service, Delta offered the nation's first public air-to-ground telephone system with Airfone, on the L-1011. Delta was named 'Official Airline of Walt Disney World in 1985. Their official ride in the Magic Kingdom was Delta Dreamflight. In 1987, Delta took over Western Airlines and absorbed its large hubs at Salt Lake City and Los Angeles. That year, Delta began flights from Portland, Oregon to Tokyo, Seoul, and Bangkok, its first transpacific routes. Through these acquisitions and expansions Delta becomes the fourth largest U.S. carrier and fifth largest world carrier. Delta was the first U.S. airline to operate the MD-11 aircraft in 1990. Delta's most dramatic expansion came with its purchase of Pan American's European routes in 1991 which included all north Atlantic routes and the Frankfurt, Germany hub, shortly before Pan Am declared bankruptcy. The purchase gave Delta the largest transatlantic route network which stands to today, and a small group of A310 aircraft that were retired after a few years. Even today, Delta is considered the leading U.S. carrier across the Atlantic in terms of passengers carried and number of flights operated. Delta also acquired Pan Am's northeastern shuttle where they also took delivery of a number of Boeing 727s, later replaced by 737-800s and 737-300s. In 1993 Delta established a codesharing arrangement among other airlines, giving the company access to more destinations. By 1997 Delta began large expansions into Latin America and in 1999 introduced the Boeing 777 into its fleet, greatly increasing possibilities to longer non-stop services. In 2000, Delta made another big decision in its history by launching SkyTeam, a global alliance, partnering Delta with AeroMéxico, Air France and Korean Air. Just three years later, Delta implemented the largest domestic codeshare alliance with Continental and Northwest. SkyTeam becomes the second largest airline alliance in the world. Today, SkyTeam is made up of AeroMéxico, Air France-KLM, Alitalia, Continental Airlines, CSA Czech Airlines, Delta Air Lines, Korean Air, and Northwest Airlines. Delta also has codesharing agreements with Air Jamaica, Avianca, China Airlines, China Southern, El Al Israel Airlines, Royal Air Maroc, South African Airways, and domestic partners Alaska Airlines, American Eagle, Continental Airlines, ExpressJet, Horizon Air, Mesaba, Northwest Airlines, and Pinnacle Airlines. Delta was one of the airlines targeted in the failed Operation Bojinka plot: the conspirators planned to bomb a Delta MD-11 flying from Seoul to Bangkok via Taipei on January 21, 1995. Delta was a founding partner of the online travel agency Orbitz, which was purchased by Cendant in 2004.
Current Restructuring
Cendant Delta operated its last MD-11 flight on January 1, 2004, Flight 56 departing New Tokyo International Airport (now Narita International Airport) at 4:45pm. The aircraft arrived in Atlanta at 3:20pm. This concluded MD-11 service in the fleet (being replaced by the Boeing 777-200), with Delta having retired the other three-engined aircraft, the Boeing 727 (replaced by the Boeing 737-800) in 2003, and the Lockheed L-1011 (replaced by the Boeing 767-400) in 2001. Its entire active fleet is now comprised of twinjets. Delta had 14 MD-11s at the time of the aircraft's retirement. On September 23, 2004, a Delta spokesperson confirmed plans to sell eight MD-11s to FedEx. As part of Delta's transformation plan, they are planning to retire four more aircraft types. According to a report by [http://www.aviationnow.com/avnow/news/channel_aviationdaily_story.jsp?id=news/del09154.xml Aviation Daily], Delta is planning to retire its 737-200, 737-300, 767-200, and MD-90 fleet. A more recent report by Dow Jones Newswires (article at [http://money.iwon.com/jsp/nw/nwdt_rt.jsp?section=news&news_id=dji-00078120050217&feed=dji&date=20050217&cat=INDUSTRY iWon Money]) states that Delta's previous CFO Michael Palumbo aims to drop the 737-200, 737-300, and 767-200. The fourth type is currently undecided, being either the MD-88 or MD-90. Replacement aircraft are currently unknown, although it is expected that the MD-88 or MD-90 will be replaced by a 737 family aircraft, probably the 737-800. In August 2005, Delta [http://news.delta.com/article_display.cfm?article_id=9832 announced] the 737s operating their Shuttle services would be replaced by nine MD-88s from their discontinued Dallas hub and from Salt Lake City, with a consequent rise in capacity (14 seats per aircraft) and provision of premium services on those routes. On September 7, 2005, Delta announced that it had made a deal with Ohio based ABX Air Inc. to purchase 11 Boeing 767-200 aircraft along with the one they bought in July 2005. The agreement calls for ABX Air to take delivery of six of the eleven aircraft in calendar year 2006, two in 2007 and three in 2008, with payment due upon the delivery of each aircraft. The total deal is worth $190 million. Delta also announced plans to keep the Spirit of Delta, the company's first 767-200, notably bought by the airline's employees. They plan to donate the plane to the Delta Heritage Museum. The two remaining 767s will be sent to the same location where the majority of the company's L-1011's are located. In 2004, in an effort to avoid bankruptcy, Delta announced a restructuring of the company that included job cuts as well as turnaround plans for expansion of Atlanta operations by some 100 new flights making it a 'super-hub' and requiring the airline to spread its flight schedule more evenly across the day. Delta closed its hub at Dallas-Fort Worth International Airport on January 31, 2005. SimpliFares
On January 5, 2005, Delta introduced SimpliFares, a radical transformation of its fare structure, cutting its most expensive fares by as much as 50 percent nationwide and capping one-way domestic fares at $499 in coach class and $599 first class. They also launched a system of "same-day confirmed" where for $25, a passengers may confirm a seat on a different flight instead of standing by. Due to continued high fuel costs, the company was forced to raise these fare caps by $100 in July, 2005, to $599 in coach class and $699 in first class. In 2005, Delta applied to serve a daily non-stop flight from Atlanta to Beijing, China starting in March, 2006, but rights were instead awarded to American Airlines, operating from Chicago, and Continental Airlines out of Newark. On August 15, 2005, in an SEC filing, Delta announced that it had finalized a deal to sell Delta Connection carrier Atlantic Southeast Airlines for $425 million in cash to SkyWest Airlines in an effort to obtain money to avoid bankruptcy. Analysts called the move a desperate one, estimating ASA's worth at around $700-$800 million — a price which SkyWest would not have been willing to pay. On September 7, 2005, Delta announced that it would cut 26% of its flights at its Cincinnati hub and redeploy aircraft to its hubs in Atlanta and Salt Lake City. The move may eliminate up to 1,000 jobs in Cincinnati. They also announced further international expansion into Europe and Latin America in hopes of higher yields. The move is also expected to free up needed aircraft to fly these new routes and routes affected by the retirement of the 737 classics, the MD-90s out of SLC and the 767-200. On September 14, 2005, Delta filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in New York for the first time in its 76-year history. The Delta board of directors unanimously voted to file for protection which they see would be in the company's best interest. The company cites high labor costs and record-breaking jet fuel prices as factors in its filing. At the time of the filing, Delta had $20.5 billion in debt, $10 billion of which was accumilated since January, 2001. Northwest Airlines' bankruptcy filing on the same day added fuel to months of speculation that the two airlines might merge. A major challenge in such a scenario is that Delta and Northwest operate entirely dissimilar fleets. On September 22, 2005, Delta announced the acceleration of restructuring activities, targeting an additional $3 billion per year in cost reductions by 2007. $970 million of this amount will come from debt relief, lease and facility savings, and fleet modifications. Non-union workers' salaries will be reduced by a minimum of 9% across the board, with a 15% reduction for executive officers and a 25% pay cut for CEO Gerald Grinstein. Additionaly, the company plans to lay off between 7,000 and 9,000 of its 52,000 employees. Delta plans to alter its network structure by "right-sizing" hubs and increasing point-to-point routes. It plans to reduce domestic capacity by up to 20% while growing more profitable international route capacity up to 25%. Based on these new inititaves, Delta projects a return to profitability within two years based on a crude oil price model of $66 per barrel, in contrast to other bankrupt carriers' restructuring modeled on $55 per barrel. In late 2005, Delta annouced that as a large part of its reorganization plan it would increase international flights while decreasing domestic capacity. On October 18, 2005, at a press conference in Atlanta, they officially announced the largest international expansion in the company's history, to destinations in Europe, the Middle East, Latin America and the Caribbean. This augmented routes launched in 2005 which included ATL-Moscow (SVO), ATL-Saint Croix , JFK-Chennai via Paris, and also major expansions into Mexico from Atlanta, Cincinnati, Los Angeles, and JFK. Delta also unveiled its latest expansions from New York (JFK) to Budapest, Dublin /Shannon, and Manchester; and from Atlanta to Athens, Edinburgh, Tel Aviv, Nice, Düsseldorf, Copenhagen, and Venice; as well as increased frequencies to many other cities around the world. Through this network restructuring, Delta plans to increase its international passenger traffic revenue from 22% of its total passenger revenues to more than 35% by 2007.
Advertising
Delta has had several different slogans throughout its history:
- In 1940, Delta adopted the slogan: "Airline of the South".
- In 1968, Delta adopted the slogan: "Delta is ready when you are".
- In 1987, Delta adopted the slogan: "We love to fly, and it shows".
- In 1995, Delta adopted the slogan: "You'll love the way we fly".
- In 2005, Delta adopted the slogan: "Good Goes Around".
Incidents and Accidents

- Note: This section is for major accidents only. On the afternoon of August 2, 1985, Delta Air Lines Flight 191, on a Fort Lauderdale-Dallas/Fort Worth-Los Angeles route, crashed at Dallas-Fort Worth International Airport, killing 133 of the 167 passengers and crew on board due to severe microburst induced wind shear. The crash would later become the subject of a television movie. On August 31, 1988, Delta Air Lines Flight 1141, bound from Dallas-Fort Worth International Airport to Salt Lake City International Airport, crashed after take-off due to improper configuration of flaps and leading edge slats. Actual cockpit voice recorder for DL Flight 191: http://www.airdisaster.com/download2/dl191.shtml Acutal cockpit voice recorder for DL Flight 1141: http://www.airdisaster.com/download2/dl1141.shtml
Destinations
See full article: Delta Air Lines destinations Through pending and confirmed routes to Mexico, Central America, and South America, Delta expects a 124% growth in the Latin American market bringing them solidly to the #3 US carrier into Latin America. Further expansions into European markets will also continue to secure Delta as the leading carrier across the Atlantic.
New Routes / Future Routes
Nonstop from Atlanta, Georgia to:
- Antigua and Barbuda
- St. John's beginning December 18, 2005
- Denmark
- Copenhagen beginning May 1, 2006
- Dominican Republic
- Santo Domingo
- Santiago
- Punta Cana
- France
- Nice beginning May 9, 2006
- Germany
- Düsseldorf beginning April 3, 2006
- Greece
- Athens beginning May 29, 2006
- Honduras
- San Pedro Sula beginning March 1, 2006
- Roatán beginning March 4, 2006
- Israel
- Tel Aviv beginning March 27, 2006
- Italy
- Venice Beginning June 6, 2006
- Mexico
- Acapulco pending DOT approval
- Cozumel beginning March 5, 2006
- Ixtapa-Zihuatanejo pending DOT approval
- Mazatlan beginning March 8, 2006
- Puerto Vallarta beginning December 15, 2005
- Nicaragua
- Managua beginning December 15, 2005
- United Kingdom(Scotland)
- Edinburgh beginning May of 2006 OTHER CITIES Boston to Cancun pending DOT approval Cincinnati to Los Cabos pending DOT approval Cincinnati to Cancun pending DOT approval Los Angeles to Los Cabos pending DOT approval Los Angeles to Cancun pending DOT approval Los Angeles to Puerto Vallarta pending DOT approval Los Angeles to Ixtapa-Zihuatanejo pending DOT approval New York(JFK) to Los Cabos pending DOT approval New York(JFK) to Kiev, Ukraine pending DOT approval Orlando to Cancun pending DOT approval Washington, D.C.(Dulles) to Cancun pending DOT approval Boston to Nassau, Bahamas beginning December 17, 2005 Los Angeles to Cozumel beginning March 5, 2006 New York(JFK) to Cancun beginning December 17, 2005 New York(JFK) to Budapest, Hungary beginning May 08, 2006 New York(JFK) to Dublin, Ireland beginning May 15, 2006 New York(JFK) to Shannon, Ireland (via Dublin) beginning May 15, 2006 New York(JFK) to Manchester, England beginning May 15, 2006 Salt Lake City to Cozumel beginning March 10, 2006 Note: Please limit any additions of this list to International Destinations.
Fleet
Delta operates an all-Boeing (including McDonnell Douglas aircaft) fleet. They do not operate any Airbus aircaft, nor do they have any on order. Delta's Boeing customer number is 32,i.e. 757-232, 737-832, 767-432. Delta has abolished three-class seating, replacing both first and business class on international flights with a single premium class called "BusinessElite" on all of their Boeing 777-232ER aircraft and Boeing 767-332ER's. First and economy class still exist on all other aircraft types. For full and accurate list see http://www.delta.com/about_delta/corporate_information/delta_stats_facts/aircraft_fleet/index.jsp Information on the Convair CV-880, Douglas DC-9-10, and McDonnell Douglas DC-10-10 were found in archives at the Delta Heritage Museum in Atlanta, Georgia.
- Delta operated the DC-10 twice, once on lease from United before the L-1011s could be delivered, and again when Delta acquired Western Airlines in 1987.
- Delta experimented with Airbus aircraft for two years. In the end, they removed the A310 from their fleet because of a plague of technical issues with the model. Delta Air Lines Fleet prior to the jet era Up until the late 1960s, Delta Air Lines operated a fleet of propeller operated aircraft, including among others, the Convair 340, Convair 440, Curtiss C-46 Commando, Douglas DC-3, Douglas DC-4, Douglas DC-6, Douglas DC-7, Fairchild Hiller FH-227, Lockheed Constellation, and Lockheed L-100 Hercules. The Curtiss C-46 Commando and Lockheed L-100 Hercules aircraft were operated as cargo aircraft.
Directors
As of 2005, the directors of Delta Air Lines are:
- John F. Smith, Jr., Chairman
- Gerald Grinstein, CEO
- Edward H. Budd
- Domenico De Sole
- David R. Goode
- Patricia L. Higgins
- Arthur E. Johnson
- Karl J. Krapek
- Paula Rosput Reynolds
- Kenneth B. Woodrow
See also

- SkyMiles
External links

- [http://www.delta.com/ Delta Air Lines]
- [http://www.planespotters.net/Airline/Delta_Air_Lines?show=all Delta Air Lines Fleet Detail]
- [http://www.airlinequality.com/Forum/delta.htm Delta Air Lines Passenger Opinions]
- [http://www.deltamuseum.org/ Delta Air Transport Heritage Museum]
- [http://www.delta-sky.com/ Sky], Delta's inflight magazine Category:Airlines of the United States Category:Companies based in Georgia (U.S. state) ja:デルタ航空

Eastern Airlines

For the Chinese airline, see China Eastern Airlines. Eastern Air Lines was a United States airline company that existed from the late 1920s until 1991.

History

Eastern Air Lines began life on April 19, 1926 as Pitcairn Aviation. Pitcairn won a government contract to fly the US Mail between New York City and Atlanta, Georgia, operating Mailwing single-engine aircraft. In 1929 Clement Keys, the owner of North American Aviation, purchased Pitcairn. In 1930 he changed the name to Eastern Air Transport, and it would soon be known as Eastern Airlines. In 1938, the airline was purchased by World War I flying ace, Eddie Rickenbacker. Rickenbacker pushed Eastern into a period of prodigious growth. Throughout the 1940s, competitors were acquired, more advanced planes were purchased and international routes were opened. By the 1950s, Eastern's propellers were very prominent up and down the East coast of the United States. In 1960 Eastern's first jets, Douglas DC-8s arrived, allowing Eastern to open non-stop service from New York City's Idlewild International Airport to Los Angeles International Airport in Los Angeles, California. The DC-8s were joined in 1962 by a regional airliner, the Boeing 727. Around this time, Eastern started changing their plane's livery colors to include the dark blue hockey stick design, iconic in the airline industry. The 1970s brought dramatic changes in the configuration of Eastern Airlines. Internationalization began as Eastern opened routes to new markets such as Madrid, Mexico City, Santo Domingo, Nassau, Bahamas and London. Services from San Juan, Puerto Rico's Luis Munoz Marin International Airport were expanded, and Eastern bought the Lockheed L-1011 jet, which would become known in the Caribbean as El Grandote (the huge one). Boeing 747s, leased from Pan Am, were also introduced for a short time during that period, and Eastern became the official airline of Walt Disney World. Eastern's official ride at Disney's Magic Kingdom park was If You Had Wings. During the 1970s, Eastern Airlines flights suffered several crashes, one of which became a subject for a Hollywood movie. Eastern Airlines Flight 401 was preparing to land in Miami, Florida in 1972, when the flight crew became distracted by a non-functioning gear light. While pre-occupied with fixing the light, the autopilot was inadvertently disengaged, allowing the plane to drift far below its planned flight path. The flight crashed in the Everglades, near the same site of the ValuJet Flight 592 DC-9 crash 23 years later. In Eastern's flight 401 case, it was rumored that the ghost of the pilot who flew that night was later seen on some Eastern planes that carried parts of the doomed plane. While this was largely an unproven legend, it was the subject of the movie [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0077610/ The Ghost Of Flight 401]. In 1975 Eastern Flight 66 (a Boeing 727) crashed on landing at JFK in New York City, killing 113 people. The official cause of the accident was wind shear, a phenomenon that affects the lifting capacity of an airplane's wing, and that can occur in severe weather conditions. The Airline Deregulation Act of 1978 aggravated its position, forcing Eastern into a competitive low-fare environment in which its high cost of operation put the airline at a decided disadvantage. Its all-important Atlanta hub placed it in direct competition with Delta Air Lines, a more profitable company that avoided labor wars and built a far-reaching route system through the acquisition of other carriers. Eastern was rolling along when the 1980s started, under its new president, former astronaut Frank Borman. In 1980, a Caribbean hub was inaugurated at San Juan, Puerto Rico (then still named Isla Verde International Airport). In 1982, Eastern acquired Braniff International's South American route network. And while this all was going on, Eastern enjoyed splitting their fleet between their "silver colored hockey stick" livery (the lack of paint reduced weight by a hundred pounds) and their "white colored hockey stick" livery (on its Airbus-manufactured planes, whose metallurgy required paint). In 1983, Eastern became the launch customer of Boeing's new aircraft, the Boeing 757. Its low cost of operation would make it an invaluable asset to the airline in the years to come. In that same year, Eastern reintroduced service to Ponce, Puerto Rico, using Fairchild Swearinger planes under the name Eastern Metro Express. The Eastern Metro Express operation wasn't limited to Ponce, however, as, under that name, Eastern began services from its San Juan hub to Mayagüez and several other smaller Caribbean communities, from JFK to several northeastern cities, and from Miami to many cities around the South. Eastern began losing money as it faced competition from no-frills airlines, such as People Express, which offered drastically reduced fares. In an attempt to differentiate itself from its bargain competitors, Eastern began a marketing campaign stressing its quality of service and its rank of highly experienced pilots. The public, however, just wanted cheap fares. Unable to keep up, in 1986, Borman sold the airline to Frank Lorenzo. Under Lorenzo's tenure, Eastern was crippled by severe labor unrest. Asked to accept deep cuts in benefits, Eastern's machinists went on strike. Lorenzo sold Eastern's shuttle service to real estate magnate Donald Trump in 1989, under whom it became the Trump Shuttle, while selling other parts of Eastern to his Texas Air holding company and its major subsidiary, Continental Airlines, on disadvantageous terms to Eastern. The machinists were soon joined on the picket line by the pilots. Due to the strike, flights were cancelled, resulting in lost revenue for the airline. As a result of the strike and other financial problems, Eastern filed for bankruptcy protection on March 9. March 9 The coup de grace for Eastern, it can be said, was the 1990 Gulf War. At a nice profit, Eastern sold its Central and South American route network to American Airlines and its transatlantic route network to Continental Airlines. With the higher oil prices and the public's fear of flying at the time, Eastern's sales kept suffering, and Eastern had its last flight in January 1991, officially shutting down on January 18.

Attempts at revival

An airline entrepreneur, Martin Shugrue, considered reviving Eastern in 1995, but the decision was made to revive Pan Am instead.

Eastern Shuttle

In 1961 Eastern inaugurated the Eastern Air Shuttle, featuring hourly flights of Lockheed Constellations and Electras between New York-LaGuardia, Washington, DC-National, and Boston-Logan Airports. The service emphasized convenience and simplicity—revolutionary in an era when air travel was both considered and expected to be a luxury. Not only were seat reservations not required, seat assignments were not given, and initially no check-in was required and no boarding passes were issued. Eastern guaranteed availability, however, and planes flew hourly whether empty or full. In the event of a full flight, Eastern simply added another aircraft. Jets were added in 1967 and the shuttle became all-jet in 1978 with a fleet of dedicated Boeing 727s. The shuttle proved one of Eastern's most successful ventures. Other airlines, including Pan American World Airways, eventually set up competing services. In 1989, financially struggling Eastern sold the operation to real estate magnate Donald Trump, who rebranded it the Trump Shuttle.

Boeing Customer Number

Boeing assigned Eastern Airlines the customer number 25 for all aircraft produced by the company.

Other facts and quotes of interest

- Eastern used to be the main sponsor of Puerto Rican basketball team Cariduros de Fajardo, team which carried Eastern's logo on their jerseys.
- Boxer Wilfredo Gomez was pictured by El Vocero photographers inside an Eastern Airlines L-1011 jet before taking off for his bout with Lupe Pintor in New Orleans, Louisiana.
- "Capitalism without bankruptcy is like Christianity without hell." -Frank Borman, former CEO of Eastern Airlines in 1986, five years before Eastern declared bankruptcy. Category:Defunct airlines of the United States ja:イースタン航空

1999

1999 (MCMXCIX) is a common year starting on Friday, and was designated the International Year of Older Persons by the United Nations.

Events

- Kosovo War
- Y2K preparation was a major event in 1999 both in actual events and in media over-reporting.
- The human population of the world surpassed six billion. The United Nations Population Fund designated October 12 as the approximate date for this event.

January

- January 1 - Euro currency introduced.
- January 1 - An avalanche destroys a school gymnasium during New Year celebrations in Kangiqsualujjuaq in far northern Quebec, killing nine.
- January 2 - A brutal snowstorm smashes into the Midwestern USA, causing 14 inches (359 mm) of snow at Milwaukee, Wisconsin and 19 inches (487 mm) at Chicago, Illinois. In Chicago, temperatures plunge to -13°F (-25°C), and 68 deaths are reported.
- January 4 - Gunmen open fire on Shiite Muslims worshipping in an Islamabad mosque killing 16 people and injuring 25.
- January 12 - The remains of Christina Marie Williams were found three miles (5 km) from her home on the old Fort Ord military base.
- January 20 - The China News Service announces new government restrictions on Internet use aimed especially at Internet cafes.
- January 21 - War on Drugs: In one of the largest drug busts in American history, the United States Coast Guard intercepts a ship with over 9,500 pounds (4.3 t) of cocaine aboard. The ship was headed for Houston, Texas.
- January 25 - A 6.0 Richter scale earthquake hits western Colombia killing at least 1,000

February

- February 4 - Unarmed West African immigrant Amadou Diallo is shot dead by four plainclothes New York City police officers on an unrelated stake-out, inflaming race-relations in the city.
- February 5 - Mike Tyson is sentenced to a year's imprisonment, fined $5,000, and ordered to serve 2 years probation and perform 200 hours of community service for the August 31, 1998 assault on two people after a car accident.
- February 7 - King of Jordan, Hussein of Jordan, dies from cancer. His son Abdullah II then inherits the throne, and becomes King of Jordan.
- February 10 - Avalanches in the French Alps near Geneva kill at least ten.
- February 11 - Pluto, a planet with an irregular orbit, changes from the eighth to ninth planet furthest from the Sun. It had been the eighth furthest since 1979, and will become again in 2231.
- February 12 - President Bill Clinton is acquitted by the United States Senate in his impeachment trial
- February 12 - John Myatt and John Drewe are sentenced for art forgery for one and six years, respectively.
- February 16 - In Uzbekistan a bomb explodes and gunfire is heard at the government headquarters in an apparent assassination attempt against President Islam Karimov.
- February 16 - Across Europe, Kurdish rebels take over embassies and hold hostages after Turkey arrested one of their rebel leaders, Abdullah Öcalan.
- February 16 - In Jasper, Texas, testimony begins in the trial of John William King who is accused of dragging African American James Byrd Jr. to death in an apparent hate crime. King was later convicted and sentenced to the death penalty.
- February 22 - Moderate Iraqi Shiite cleric Mohammad Sadeq al-Sadr is assassinated.
- February 23 - Kurdish rebel leader Abdullah Öcalan is charged with treason in Ankara, Turkey.
- February 23 - White supremacist John William King is found guilty of kidnapping and killing African American James Byrd Jr by dragging him behind a truck for two miles (3 km).
- February 23 - An avalanche destroys the Austrian village of Galtür, killing 31.
- February 24 - LaGrand Case: The State of Arizona executes Karl LaGrand, a German national involved in an armed robbery that led to a death. Karl's brother Walter is executed a week later, in spite of Germany's legal action in the International Court of Justice to attempt to save him.
- February 27 - While trying to circumnavigate the world in a hot air balloon, Colin Prescot and Andy Elson set a new endurance record after being in a hot air balloon for 233 hours and 55 minutes.
- February 27 - Olusegun Obasanjo becomes Nigeria's first elected president since mid-1983.

March

- March 1 - One of four bombs detonated in Lusaka, Zambia, destroys the Angolan Embassy.
- March 1 - Rwandan Hutu rebels kill and hack to pieces eight foreign tourists at the Buhoma homestead, Uganda
- March 1 - The Convention on the Prohibition of Anti-Personnel Mines comes into force.
- March 3 - Bertrand Piccard and Brian Jones begin their attempt to circumnavigate the world in a hot air balloon without stopping. Their journey ended in success on March 21.
- March 4 - Monica Lewinsky's book detailing her affair with Bill Clinton goes on sale in the United States
- March 4 - In a military court, Captain Richard Ashby of the United States Marines is acquitted of the charge of reckless flying which resulted in the deaths of 20 skiers in the Italian Alps when his low-flying jet hit a gondola cable.
- March 12 - Hungary, Poland and Czech Republic join NATO.
- March 15 - The European Commission under the presidency of Jacques Santer resigns over allegations of corruption.
- March 17 - The [http://www.roth-401k-forum.com/ Roth 401k] is introduced by Sen Roth Jr., William V.
- March 20 - Serbs launch an offensive in Bosnia
- March 21 - Bertrand Piccard and Brian Jones become the first to circumnavigate the Earth in a hot air balloon.
- March 22 - US pro-euthanasia doctor Jack Kevorkian goes on trial for murder in Pontiac, Michigan. He is later convicted of second-degree murder
- March 23 - Gunmen assassinate Paraguay's Vice President Luis María Argaña
- March 24 - NATO launches air strikes in Federal Republic of Yugoslavia which was refusing to sign a peace treaty. This marks the first time NATO attacked a sovereign country
- March 24 - Fire in the Mont Blanc Tunnel kills 39 people, closing the tunnel for nearly 3 years.
- March 26 - The Melissa worm attacks the Internet.
- March 26 - A jury in Michigan finds Dr. Jack Kevorkian guilty of second-degree murder for administering a lethal injection to a terminally ill man (the incident was videotaped and aired on September 17, 1998 edition of 60 Minutes)
- March 29 - For the first time, the Dow Jones Industrial Average closes above the 10000 mark at 10006.78.

April

- April 1 - Nunavut, an Inuit homeland, part of the Northwest Territories becomes Canada's third territory.
- April 5 - Two Libyans suspected of bringing down Pan Am flight 103 in 1988 are handed over to Scottish authorities for eventual trial in the Netherlands. The United Nations suspends sanctions against Libya
- April 5 - In Laramie, Wyoming, Russell Henderson pleads guilty to kidnapping and felony murder in order to avoid a possible death penalty conviction for the apparent hate crime killing of Matthew Shepard
- April 7 - Kosovo War: Kosovo's main border crossings are closed by Serbian forces to prevent ethnic Albanians from leaving
- April 7 - Bomb explodes in the Valley of the Fallen church in Spain - GRAPO claims responsibility
- April 9 - Ibrahim Baré Maînassara, president of Nigeria, is assassinated
- April 17 - A nail bomb explodes in the middle of a busy market in Brixton, South London
- April 18 - "The Great One" Wayne Gretzky plays his final game in the NHL.
- April 20 - Two Littleton, Colorado teenagers named Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold open fire on their teachers and fellow students. The teenagers killed 12 students and 1 teacher, and then killed themselves. See Columbine High School massacre.
- April 25 - End of term for Tuanku Jaafar ibni Almarhum Tuanku Abdul Rahman as the 10th Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia.
- April 26 - Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah ibni Almarhum Sultan Hisamuddin Alam Shah Al-Haj, Sultan of Selangor becomes the 11th Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia.
- April 28 - The first comic of Sexy Losers (then called "The Thin H Line") goes online. This webcomic would go on to be one of the most popular webcomics ever made, with a sustained level of unique IP address hits of approximately 1 million a week. It would also popularize the word "fap" as an onomatopoeia for masturbation, a sound effect widely used in anime-themed comics since.
- April 30 - Cambodia joins the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) bringing the total members to 10.
- April 30 - A third nail bomb (see April 17) explodes in the Admiral Duncan pub in Old Compton Street, Soho, London, killing a pregnant woman and two friends and injuring 70 others, including her husband. This was part of a hate campaign against ethnic minorities and gay people by David Copeland

May

David Copeland
- May 2 - Oliver Reed, British actor famous for starring in The Three Musketeers, The Four Musketeers, and The Assassination Bureau, dies of a heart attack in Malta while filming Gladiator.
- May 2 - Norman J. Sirnic and Karen Sirnic are murdered by Angel Maturino Resendiz in a parsonage in Weimar, Texas. They were his fourth and fifth victims in his fourth incident.
- May 3 - Photo driver licences and banknotes made out of polymer substrate are introduced to New Zealand.
- May 3 - A F5 tornado slams in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma killing 38 people. This was the strongest tornado ever. (See Oklahoma Tornado Outbreak)
- May 3 - The Dow Jones Industrial Average closes above 11,000 for the first time. It closes at 11,014.70.
- May 6 - Elections are held in Scotland and Wales for the new Scottish Parliament and National Assembly for Wales
- May 7 - A jury finds The Jenny Jones Show and Warner Bros liable in the shooting death of Scott Amedure after the show purposely deceived Jonathan Schmitz to appear on a secret same-sex crush episode.
- May 7 - Kosovo War: In Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, three Chinese embassy workers are killed and 20 wounded when a NATO aircraft mistakenly bombs the Chinese embassy in Belgrade
- May 7 - In Guinea-Bissau, President João Bernardo Vieira is ousted in a military coup
- May 8 - Nancy Mace becomes the first female cadet to graduate from The Military College of South Carolina.
- May 12 - David Steel becomes the first Presiding Officer (speaker) of the modern Scottish Parliament
- May 13 - in Italy Carlo Azeglio Ciampi is elected President of the republic
- May 17 - Ehud Barak is elected prime minister of Israel.
- May 19 - Star Wars: The Phantom Menace is released in theaters.
- May 20 - Bluetooth announced.
- May 23 - In Kansas City, Missouri, Owen Hart (Blue Blazer) falls 90 feet (30 m) to his death while being lowered into a World Wrestling Federation ring
- May 26 - Indian Air Force launches attack on intruding Pakistan backed militants in Kashmir sparking the Kargil War.
- May 26 - Manchester United win the UEFA Champions League at the Nou Camp stadium, Barcelona, beating Bayern Munich to lift their third major trophy in their unprecedented Treble, after winning the English Premier League and FA Cup.
- May 26 - Madejczyk Massacre Averted, Bridgman, Michigan school shooting plot
- May 26 - first Welsh Assembly for over 600 years opens in Cardiff
- May 27 - The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia in The Hague, Netherlands indicts Slobodan Milošević and four others for war crimes and crimes against humanity committed in Kosovo
- May 28 - In Milan, Italy, after 22 years of restoration work, Leonardo de Vinci's newly-restored masterpiece "The Last Supper" is put back on display.

June

- 'solid - the socialist youth is formed in Hannover, Germany
- June 2 - After decades of fighting off outside technological influences like television, the King of Bhutan allows television transmissions to commence in the Kingdom for the first time, coinciding with the King's silver jubilee (see Bhutan Broadcasting Service).
- June 5 - The AIS, the armed wing of FIS, agrees in principle to disband in Algeria.
- June 6 - In Brazil, 345 prisoners escape from Putim prison through the front gate
- June 7 - Garfield daily strips in colour.
- June 8 - The government of Colombia announces it will include the estimated value of the country's illegal drug crops, exceeding half a billion US dollars, in its gross national product.
- June 9 - Kosovo War: Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and NATO sign a peace treaty.
- June 10 - Kosovo War: NATO suspends its air strikes after Slobodan Milošević agrees to withdraw Serbian forces from Kosovo.
- June 12 - Kosovo War: Operation Joint Guardian begins - NATO-led United Nations peacekeeping force KFor enter the province of Kosovo in Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Texas Governor George W. Bush announces his intention to seek the Republican Party's nomination for President of the United States.
- June 15 - George Morber Senior and Carolyn Frederick are murdered by Angel Maturino Resendiz in Gorham, Illinois. They are his eighth and ninth victims, in his seventh and final incident.
- June 19 - Torino is picked as the host city of the 2006 Winter Olympics.

July

- July 4 - David Beckham and Victoria Adams are married.
- July 11 - India recaptures Kargil as Pakistan pulls out its troops and militants after international condemnation. India claim victory in the two-month conflict.
- July 16 - Off the coast of Martha's Vineyard, a plane piloted by John F. Kennedy Jr. crashes with his wife Carolyn Bessette Kennedy and her sister Lauren Bessette on board. All three are killed in the crash
- July 20 - Mercury program: Liberty Bell 7 is raised from the Atlantic Ocean.
- July 23 - Mohammed VI becomes King of Morocco.
- July 23 to July 25 - Woodstock 99 festival held in New York.
- July 23 - Hijack of ANA Flight 61 in Tokyo.
- July 25 - Lance Armstrong wins first Tour de France.
- July 27 - 21 die in a canyoning disaster near Interlaken, Switzerland.
- July 31 - Mark O. Barton kills 9 in Atlanta, Georgia
- July 31 - NASA intentionally crashes the Lunar Prospector spacecraft into the Moon, thus ending its mission to detect frozen water on the moon's surface.

August

- August 8 - The first edition of the Callatis Festival, the largest music &culture festival in Romania.
- August 9 - Russian President Boris Yeltsin fires his Prime Minister, Sergei Stepashin, and for the fourth time fires his entire cabinet
- August 10 - Buford O. Furrow, Jr. attempts a mass murder in Los Angeles
- August 10 - Atlantique Incident occurs as an intruding Pakistan navy plane is shot down in India. The incident sparks tensions between the two nations, coming just a month after the end of the Kargil War.
- August 11 - Total eclipse in Europe and Asia
- August 11 - An F-2 tornado rips through downtown Salt Lake City, Utah, killing one person and injuring over 100.
- August 17 - A 7.4-magnitude earthquake strikes Istanbul and northwestern Turkey, killing more than 17,000 and injuring 44,000. This earthquake was the first of a long series of unrelated but frequent earthquakes throughout the world during the years 1999 and 2000. Some connected the earthquake to the fact that the Umbra of the solar eclipse of August 11, was right above Istanbul.
- August 19 - In Belgrade, tens of thousands of Serbians rally to demand the resignation of Yugoslav President Slobodan Milošević

September

- September 7 - Earthquake strikes Athens resulting to more than 100 dead and 672 homes destroyed. It was not clear if it was related to the earlier earthquake of Turkey. That earthquake was the worst in Athens after 20 years. Both disasters were noted for resulting to a mutual assistance and better climate between the two 'rivalling' countries.
- September 8 - first of the series of Russian apartment bombings. The subsequent occurred on September 13, 16, and 22 (failed).
- September 9 - Sega released the Dreamcast worldwide. Breaking video game and other entertainment sales record in its first 24 hours of availability.
- September 21 - Chi-Chi earthquake occurred in central Taiwan, caused about 2,400 people dead.

October

- October - NASA loses one of its Mars probes, the Climate Orbiter
- October 5 - Thirty-one people die in the Ladbroke Grove rail crash, west of London, England.
- October 12 - Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif attempts to dismiss Army Chief General Pervez Musharraf and install ISI director Khwaja Ziauddin in his place. Senior Army generals refuse to accept the dismissal. Musharraf, who was out of the country, attempts to return in a commercial airliner. Sharif orders the Karachi airport to not allow the plane to land. The generals lead a coup, ousting Sharif's administration and taking over the airport. The plane lands with only a few minutes of fuel to spare, and Musharraf takes control of the government.
- October 12 - The 6 billionth person in the world, according to the UN is born in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
- October 13 - The United States Senate rejects ratification of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT)
- October 15 ? National Geographic Society reveals the fossil of Archaeoraptor in a press conference (the fossil is later found to be a forgery)
- October 18 ? Michael Pawluk Michigan attorney sails solo-single-handed over 2,500 nautical miles (4600 km) on a 30 foot (10 m) boat when his wife demands "some space".
- October 25 - Golfer Payne Stewart, 42, dies in an aircraft accident.
- October 27 - Gunmen open fire in the Armenian parliament killing Prime Minister Vazgan Sarkisian, Parliament Chairman Karen Demirchian and 6 other members.
- October 27 - The New York Yankees complete a 4 game sweep of the Atlanta Braves to win their second consecutive World Series.
- October 31 - EgyptAir Flight 990 traveling from New York City to Cairo crashes off the coast of Nantucket, Massachusetts, killing all 217 on-board
- October 31 - Roman Catholic Church and Lutheran Church leaders sign the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification, ending a centuries-old doctrinal dispute over the nature of faith and salvation.

November

- November 5 - United States v. Microsoft: US District Judge Thomas Penfield Jackson issues a preliminary ruling that the software company Microsoft had "monopoly power" (on April 3, 2000 Jackson found that Microsoft violated the Sherman Anti-Trust Act).
- November 6 - Australians vote to keep the British queen as their head of state
- November 18 - In College Station, Texas, 12 are killed and 28 injured at Texas A&M University when a huge bonfire under construction collapses.
- November 19 - In Istanbul, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) ends a two-day summit by calling for a political settlement in Chechnya and adopting a Charter for European Security
- November 20 - The People's Republic of China launches the first Shenzhou spacecraft
- November 26 - Earthquake and Tsunami in Vanuatu
- November 27 - Labour Party elected in New Zealand general election. Helen Clark first Elected Woman Prime Minster in New Zealand History.
- November 28 - A man wielding a samurai sword enters St Andrews Catholic Church in Thornton Heath and injures 11
- November 28 - Jorge Batlle for the Colorado Party is elected president of Uruguay
- November 30 - In Seattle, Washington, the first major mobilization of the anti-globalization movement catches police unprepared and forces the cancellation of the opening ceremonies of the WTO Meeting of 1999 (protests end on December 3).

December

December 3
- December 2 - The United Kingdom devolves political power in Northern Ireland to the Northern Ireland Executive.
- December 3 - After rowing for 81 days and 2,962 nautical miles (5486 km), Tori Murden becomes the first woman to cross the Atlantic Ocean by rowboat alone when she reaches Guadeloupe from the Canary Islands
- December 3 - NASA loses radio contact with the Mars Polar Lander moments before the spacecraft enters the Martian atmosphere.
- December 12 - President Lt. General Umar Hasan Ahmad al-Bashir of Sudan dismisses the National Assembly during an internal power struggle between him and speaker of the Parliament Hasan al-Turabi.
- December 14 - Algerian Ahmed Ressam was arrested while crossing the United States-Canada border at Port Angeles, Washington when United States Customs found explosives in the trunk of his automobile. The arrest caused fears of a terrorist attack in the United States and was a major factor in the cancellation of a public New Year's celebration in Seattle. Ressam was later convicted in a plot to bomb Los Angeles International Airport on New Year's Eve.
- December 17 - Iraq disarmament crisis: The United Nations Monitoring, Verification and Inspection Commission (Unmovic) is created to replace UNSCOM. The U.N. Security council once again orders Iraq to allow inspections teams immediate and unconditional access to any weapons sites and facilities. Iraq rejects the resolution.
- December 20 - Macau is handed over to the People's Republic of China by Portugal.
- December 21 and December 22 - The Spanish Civil Guard intercepts near Calatayud (Zaragoza) a Madrid-bound van driven by ETA and loaded with 950 kg of explosives. The next day, another van loaded with 750 kg is found not far from there. The incident is known as "la caravana de la muerte" (the caravan of death). Shortly after 9/11, ETA confirmed their plan had been to blow down Torre Picasso.
- December 24 - Indian Airlines Flight 814, which was en route from Kathmandu, Nepal to Delhi, India was hijacked and taken to Kandahar, Afghanistan
- December 29 - Former Beatle George Harrison is stabbed several times in the chest by Michael Anram, who had broken into his home. Harrison's wife wrestles the knife out the assailant's hand before the police arrives. The man apparently believed that Harrison was the devil. He was later charged with attempted murder
- December 31 - Boris Yeltsin resigns as President of Russia, to be replaced by Vladimir Putin
- December 31 - Five hijackers, who had been holding 155 hostages on an Indian Airlines plane, leave the plane with two Islamic clerics that they had demanded be freed.
- December 31 - Start Of Millennium celebrations and countdown.
- December 31 - HM Queen Elizabeth II opens the Millennium Dome at Greenwich, London.
- December 31 - The Panama Canal is transferred to Panamanian control.

Unknown date

- Honda Insight is the first hybrid-fuel automobile imported into the United States.
- Naruto (manga) is created by Masashi Kishimoto.

Births

- February 3 - Brett & Jon Wirta, American actors
- April 7 - Conner Rayburn, American actor

Deaths

January-April

- January 14 - Jerzy Grotowski, Polish theatre director (b. 1933)
- January 25 - Robert Shaw, American conductor (b. 1916)
- January 31 - Norm Zauchin, baseball player (b. 1929)
- February 1 - Paul Mellon, American philanthropist (b. 1907)
- February 5 - Wassily Leontief, Russian economist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1906)
- February 7 - King Hussein of Jordan (b. 1935)
- February 8 - Iris Murdoch, Anglo-Irish author (b. 1919)
- February 15 - Henry Way Kendall, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1926)
- February 18 - Noam Pitlik, American actor and director (b. 1932)
- February 20 - Sarah Kane, English playwright (b. 1971)
- February 20 - Gene Siskel, American film critic (b. 1946)
- February 21 - Gertrude B. Elion, American scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1918)
- February 22 - William Bronk, American poet (b. 1918)
- February 25 - Glenn Seaborg, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1912)
- March 2 - Dusty Springfield, English singer, (b. 1939)
- March 3 - Gerhard Herzberg, German-born chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1904)
- March 4 - Harry Blackmun, American judge (b. 1908)
- March 5 - Richard Kiley, American actor (b. 1922)
- March 7 - Sidney Gottlieb, American Central Intelligence Agency official (b. 1918)
- March 7 - Stanley Kubrick, American film director and producer (b. 1928)
- March 8 - Joe DiMaggio, baseball player (b. 1914)
- March 12 - Yehudi Menuhin, American-born violinist (b. 1916)
- March 18 - Adolfo Bioy Casares, Argentinian writer (b. 1914)
- March 20 - David Strickland, American actor (suicide) (b. 1969)
- March 24 - Birdie Tebbetts, baseball player and manager (b. 1912)
- March 29 - Joe Williams, American jazz singer (b. 1918)
- March 31 - Yuri Knorosov, Russian linguist and epigrapher (b. 1922)
- April 20 - Richard Rood, American professional wrestler (b. 1958)
- April 25 - Lord Killanin, Irish journalist and president of the International Olympic Committee (b. 1914)
- April 25 - Herman Miller, American screenwriter and producer (b. 1919)
- April 26 - Jill Dando, British journalist and TV presenter
- April 28 - Arthur Leonard Schawlow, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1921)

May-August

- May 2 - Oliver Reed, English actor (b. 1938)
- May 3 - Steve Chiasson, Canadi

1961

1961 (MCMLXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will take you to calendar). As MAD Magazine pointed out on its cover for the March issue, this was the first "upside-up" year—i.e., one that looked the same upside down—since 1881, and the last until 6009.

Events

January

1881 in January 1961]]
- January 1 - The farthing coin, used since the 13th century, ceases to be legal tender in the United Kingdom.
- January 3 - President Dwight Eisenhower announces that the United States has severed diplomatic and consular relations with Cuba.
- January 3 - SL-1, an atomic reactor, exploded at National Reactor Testing Station in Idaho Falls, Idaho, killing 3 military technicians.
- January 5 - Italian sculptor Alfredo Fioravanti marches into US consulate in Rome and confesses that he was part of the team that forged the Etruscan terracotta warriors in the Metropolitan Museum of Art
- January 7 - Following a four-day conference in Casablanca, five African chiefs of state announced plans for a NATO-type African organization to ensure common defense. The Charter of Casablanca involved were Morocco, the United Arab Republic, Ghana, Guinea, and Mali.
- January 8 - In France, referendum supports Charles de Gaulle's policies in Algeria
- January 9 - British authorities announce that they have discovered a large Soviet spy ring in London
- January 12 - President Dwight Eisenhower gave his final State of the Union Address to Congress.
- January 17 - Assassination of Patrice Lumumba
- January 20 - John F. Kennedy becomes President of the United States
- January 24 - US B-52 bomber with two 24-megaton nuclear bombs crashes near Goldsboro, North Carolina
- January 24 - Musician Bob Dylan said to have made his way to New York City after bumming a ride in Madison, Wisconsin. Dylan was likely on his way to visit his idol Woody Guthrie. He later found fame in the Greenwich Village protest folk music scene.
- January 25 - In Washington, DC John F. Kennedy delivers the first live presidential news conference. In it, he announces that the Soviet Union had freed the two surviving crewmen of a USAF RB-47 reconnaissance plane shot down by Soviet flyers over the Barents Sea July 1, 1960. (see RB-47H shot down)
- January 25 - Acting to halt 'leftist excesses,' a junta comprised of two army officers and 4 civilians takes over the rule of El Salvador, ousting another junta that had ruled for three months.
- January 26 - John F. Kennedy appoints Janet G. Travell to be his physician. This is the first time a woman held this appointment.
- January 30 - President John F. Kennedy delivered his first State of the Union Address.
- January 30 - Martin Luther King Jr. has a son - Dexter Scott King.
- January 31 - Ham, a 37 pound male chimpanzee, was rocketed into space in a test of the Project Mercury capsule designed to carry U.S. astronauts into space.

February-March

astronaut, Israel.]]
- February 3 - China buys grain from Canada with $60 million
- February 4 - The Portuguese Colonial War begins in Angola.
- February 5 - The Sunday Telegraph publishes its first issue.
- February 9 - In Congo, president Joseph Kasavubu names Joseph Ileo as a new prime minister
- February 11 - Trial of Adolf Eichmann begins in Jerusalem.
- February 13 - Congo government announces that villagers have killed Patrice Lumumba
- February 14 - Discovery of the chemical elements: Element 103, Lawrencium, is first synthesized (Berkeley, California).
- February 15 - A Sabena Boeing 707 crashes near Brussels, Belgium killing 73, including the entire United States figure skating team and several coaches.
- February 26 - Hassan II is pronounced King of Morocco.
- March 1 - President of the United States John F. Kennedy establishes the Peace Corps.
- March 1 - First elections held in Uganda and it becomes self-governing.
- March 2 - US president John F Kennedy creates Peace Corps
- March 3 - Hassan II is crowned King of Morocco.
- March 8 - Max Conrad circumnavigates the earth in eight days, 18 hours and 49 minutes setting a new world record.
- March 8 - First US Polaris submarines arrive at Holy Loch.
- March 13 - Black and white £5 notes cease to be a legal tender in the UK
- March 13 - A dam bursts on the Dnieper river in the USSR - 145 dead.
- March 15 - South Africa withdraws from the British Commonwealth.
- March 18 - Ceasefire in the Algerian War of Independence
- March 29 - The Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution is ratified, allowing residents of Washington, DC to vote in presidential elections.
- March 30 - Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs signed at New York.

April

- April 5 - New Guinea Council of western Papua installed
- April 11 - Trial of Adolf Eichmann begins in Jerusalem
- April 12 - Albert Kalonji takes a title of Emperor Albert I Kalonji of South Kasai
- April 12 - Yuri Gagarin is the first human in space.
- April 17 - Bay of Pigs Invasion of Cuba begins, ending in failure April 19.
- April 20 - Fidel Castro announces that all invaders of the Bay of Pigs invasion have been defeated
- April 22 - Three French generals who oppose De Gaulle's policies in Algeria fail in a coup attempt.
- April 23-24 - Vasa raised in the Stockholm harbor.
- April 25 - Robert Noyce is granted the first patent for an integrated circuit.
- April 25 - General Maurice Challe, who lead the Algerian army rebels, surrenders
- April 26 - In Congo, soldiers arrest Moise Tsombe in a political conference
- April 27 - Sierra Leone is granted its independence from the United Kingdom.
- April 29 - NSW votes at referendum to retain Legislative Council

May

- May 5 - Alan B. Shepard becomes the first American in space.
- May 8 - British George Blake is sentenced to 42 years imprisonment for spying.
- May 14 - American civil rights movement: A Freedom Riders bus is fire-bombed near Anniston, Alabama and the civil rights protestors are beaten by an angry mob.
- May 16 - A military coup in South Korea - Do Young Tsang takes over.
- May 19 - Venera program: Venera 1 becomes the first man-made object to fly-by another planet by passing Venus (however the probe had lost contact with earth a month earlier and did not send back any data).
- May 21 - American civil rights movement: Alabama Governor John Patterson declares martial law in an attempt to restore order after race riots break out.
- May 24 - American civil rights movement: Freedom Riders are arrested in Jackson, Mississippi for "disturbing the peace" after disembarking from their bus.
- May 25 - Apollo program: President Kennedy announces before a special joint session of Congress his goal to initiate a project to put a "man on the moon" before the end of the decade.
- May 27 - Tunku Abdul Rahman, Prime Minister of Malaya holds a press conference in Singapore announcing his idea of formation of the Federation of Malaysia comprising Malaya, Singapore, Sarawak, Brunei and North Borneo(Sabah).
- May 28 - Peter Benenson's article "The Forgotten Prisoners" is published in several internationally read newspapers. This will later be thought of as the founding of the human rights organization Amnesty International.
- May 30 - Rafael Leónidas Trujillo, totalitarian despot of the Dominican Republic since 1930, is killed in an ambush, putting an end to the second longest-running dictatorship in Latin American history.
- May 31 - In France, rebel generals Maurice Challe ja Andre Zelelr are sentenced to 15 years in prison
- May 31 - South Africa officially leaves the British Commonwealth

June-September

- June 4 - John F. Kennedy and Nikita Khrushchev meet during two days in Vienna. They talk about nuclear tests, disarmament and Germany.
- June 17 - Paris-Strassbourg train derails near Ventyr-le-Francois – 24 dead, 109 dead
- June 17 - The New Democratic Party of Canada is founded with the merger of the Cooperative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) and the Canadian Labour Congress.
- June 19 - British protectorate ends in Kuwait and it becames an emirate
- June 21 - Russian ballet dancer Rudolf Nureyev requests asylum in France while in Paris with the Kirov Ballet
- June 22 - Moise Tshombe released for lack of evidence to connection to murder of Patrice Lumumba
- June 25 - US philanthropist George Vanderbilt is found dead at the base of a San Francisco skyscraper
- June 25 - Iraqi president Abdul Karim Kassem announces he is going to annex Kuwait - Kuwaiti government ask British help in June 27. British army begin to send in troops.
- July 4 - Soviet submarine K-19 explodes in the North Atlantic - 22 dead
- July 5 - The first Israeli rocket, Shavit 2 was launched.
- July 8 - Mine explosion in Czechoslovakia - 108 dead
- July 21 - Mercury program: Gus Grissom piloting the Mercury 4 capsule "Liberty Bell 7" becomes the second American to go into space (sub-orbital).
- July 31 - At Fenway Park in Boston, Massachusetts, the first All-Star Game tie in major league baseball history occurs when the game is stopped in the 9th inning due to rain.
- August 10 - Britain applies for membership of the EEC.
- August 21 - Jomo Kenyatta released from prison in Kenya
- August 13 - Construction of the Berlin Wall begins. Movement between East Berlin and West Berlin remains restricted for the next 28 years, until November 9, 1989.
- August 21 – Jomo Kenyatta is fully released in Kenya.
- September 14 - New military government of Turkey sentences 15 members of the previous government to death
- September 17 - Military rulers in Turkey hang publicly former president Adnan Menderes
- September 17-18 - Dag Hammarskjöld dies in an air crash en route to Katanga, Congo.
- September 21 - In France, OAS slips an anti-de Gaulle message to TV programming
- September 24 - The old Deutsche Opernhaus in the Berlin neighborhood of Charlottenburg returned to its newly rebuilt house as the Deutsche Oper Berlin.
- September 28 - A military coup in Damascus, Syria effectively ends the United Arab Republic, the union between Egypt and Syria

October-November

- October 10 - Volcanic eruption on Tristan da Cunha - whole population evacuated.
- October 12 - The death penalty abolished in New Zealand.
- October 17 - "Battle of Paris": French police attack in Paris about 30,000 protesting a curfew applied solely to Algerians. Official death toll is 3, but human rights groups claim 240 dead.
- October 19 - Arab League takes over protection of Kuwait - last British troops leave.
- October 25 - The first edition of Private Eye, the British satirical magazine.
- October 27 - Armistice begins in Katanga, Congo
- October 27 - Mongolia and Mauretania join the United Nations
- October 30 - Nuclear testing: The Soviet Union detonates a 58 megaton yield hydrogen bomb over Novaya Zemlya (this is still the largest nuclear device to ever be detonated). Nikita Kruschev announces that the scientists had planned to make it 100 megatons, but had reduced the yield so as to avoid breaking all the windows in Moscow.
- October 31 - In the Soviet Union, Joseph Stalin's body is removed from Lenin's Tomb.
- October 31 - Hurricane Hattie hits Belize City. 400 dead, 65.000 made homeless.
- November - Despite public protest, the demolition of Euston Arch in London starts.
- November 2 - Congo government troops march into Katanga
- November 3 - U Thant of Burma elected United Nations Secretary General
- November 12 - Stalingrad's name changed to Volgograd.
- November 13 - Vladimir Yefimovich Semichastny succeeds Aleksandr Nikolayevich Shelepin as head of the KGB.
- November 16 - British Conservative government introduces the Commonwealth Immigration Bill, limiting immigration from British Commonwealth countries to Britain.
- November 29 - Mercury program: Mercury-Atlas 5 is launched with Enos the chimp aboard (the spacecraft orbited the Earth twice and splashed-down off the coast of Puerto Rico).

December

- December 1 - Netherlands New Guinea raises new Morning Star flag and changes name to West Papua
- December 2 - Cold War: In a nationally broadcast speech, Cuban leader Fidel Castro declares that he is a Marxist-Leninist and that Cuba was going to adopt Communism.
- December 5 – US president John F. Kennedy gives support to Volta Dam project in Ghana.
- December 9 - Tanganyika gains independence and declares itself a republic with Julius Nyerere as its first President.
- December 9 - The Australian government of Robert Menzies is re-elected for a sixth term.
- December 10 - Soviet Union severs diplomatic relations with Albania.
- December 11 - Vietnam War officially begins as the first American helicopters arrive in Saigon along with 400 U.S. personnel.
- December 11 - Adolf Eichmann is pronounced guilty
- December 15 - An Israeli war crimes tribunal sentences Adolf Eichmann to die for his part in the Jewish holocaust.
- December 17 - India occupies Goa
- December 19 - Goa officially ceded to India after 400 years of Portuguese rule.
- December 19 - Sukarno announces that he will take West Irian by force if necessary
- December 21 - In Congo, Katangan primne minister Moise Tshombe recognizes Congolese constitution
- December 30 - Congolese troops capture Albert Kalonji of South Kasai (who soon escapes)
- December 31 - The Marshall Plan expires after having distributed more than $12 billion in foreign aid to rebuild Europe.
- December 31 - Ireland's first national television station, Teilifís Éireann, (later RTÉ) begins broadcasting.

Unknown dates

- John F. Kennedy begins the Apollo program of U.S. manned spaceflight
- The first quasar is discovered by Allan Sandage at Mt Palomar, California

Births

January-March

- January 2 - Gabrielle Carteris, American actress
- January 2 - Todd Haynes, American film director
- January 8 - Calvin Smith, American athlete
- January 13 - Julia Louis-Dreyfus, American actress
- January 17 - Maia Chiburdanidze, Georgian chess player
- January 18 - Mark Messier, Canadian hockey player
- January 26 - Wayne Gretzky, Canadian hockey player
- January 31 - Lloyd Cole, British singer and songwriter
- February 1 - Volker Fried, German field hockey player
- February 9 - John Kruk, baseball player and commentator
- February 10 - George Stephanopoulos, American political consultant and commentator
- February 11 - Mary Docter, American speed skater
- February 11- Carey Lowell, American actress
- February 13 - Henry Rollins, American musician
- February 16 - Andy Taylor, British musician (Duran Duran)
- February 25 - Davey Allison, American race car driver (d. 1993)
- March 4 - Ray Mancini, American boxer
- March 8 - Camryn Manheim, American actress
- March 10 - Laurel Clark, NASA astronaut (d.2003)
- March 14 - Kirby Puckett, baseball player
- March 15 - Fabio, Italian model
- March 21 - Lothar Matthäus, German footballer
- March 23 - Helmi Johannes, Indonesian television newscaster
- March 27 - Tak Matsumoto, Japanese guitarist (B'z)
- March 29 - Gerardo Teissonniere, Puerto Rican pianist

April-August

- April 2 - Christopher Meloni, American actor
- April 3 - Eddie Murphy, American actor and comedian
- April 5 - Lisa Zane, American actress
- April 6 - Gene Eugene, Canadian actor and singer (Adam Again)
- April 18 - Jane Leeves, English actress
- April 20 - Don Mattingly, baseball player
- April 23 - George Lopez, American actor and comedian
- April 26 - Joan Chen, Chinese actress
- April 30 - Isiah Thomas, American basketball player, coach, and team owner
- May 6 - George Clooney, American actor
- May 12 - Billy (William H) Duffy, English guitarist (The Cult)
- May 13 - Dennis Rodman, American basketball player and actor
- May 14 - Tim Roth, English actor
- May 17 - Enya, Irish singer and songwriter
- May 27 - Peri Gilpin, American actress
- May 29 - Melissa Etheridge, American musician
- May 31 - Justin Madden, Australian footballer and politician
- June 1 - Paul Coffey, Canadian hockey player
- June 6 - Tom Araya, rock musician (Slayer)
- June 7 - Peter Sterling, Australian rugby league player
- June 14 - Boy George, British musician and producer
- June 18 - Andrés Galarraga, Venezuelan Major League Baseball player
- June 22 - Stephen Batchelor, British field hockey player
- June 251 - Don Grindle Jr., Runner, Raquetball player, father, husband
- June 26 - Greg LeMond, American cyclist
- July 1 - Kalpana Chawla, NASA astronaut (d. 2003)
- July 1 - Diana, Princess of Wales (d. 1997)
- July 1 - Carl Lewis, American athlete
- July 12 - Ray Gillen, American singer (d. 1993)
- July 14 - Jackie Earle Haley, American actor
- July 30 - Laurence Fishburne, American actor
- August 1 - Steven F. Zambo, film producer, director, and screenwriter
- August 3 - Nicholas Harvey, English politician
- August 5 - Clayton Rohner, American actor
- August 8 - The Edge, Irish guitarist (U2)
- August 14 - Susan Olsen, American actress
- August 29 - Carsten Fischer, German field hockey player

September-November

- September 2 - Eric Dickerson, American football player
- September 2 - Carlos Valderrama, Colombian footballer
- September 6 - Paul Waaktaar-Savoy, Norwegian guitarist (a-ha)
- September 12 - Mylene Farmer, Canadian singer and songwriter
- September 13 - Dave Mustaine, American musician (Metallica and Megadeth)
- September 15 - Dan Marino, American football player
- September 22 - Scott Baio, American actor
- September 23 - William C. McCool, United States Army Commander, NASA, astronaut, (d. 2003)
- September 25 - Heather Locklear, American actress
- September 26 - Edward Kennedy Jr, son of Ted Kennedy and Virginia Joan Bennett.
- October 2 - Edmond Yu, Chinese student (d. 1997)
- October 11 - Steve Young, American football player
- October 18 - Wynton Marsalis, American trumpeter and composer
- October 25 - Grover Waldrop, American biochemist
- October 26 - Dylan McDermott, American actor
- October 29 - Randy Jackson, American musician
- October 31 - Alonzo Babers, American runner
- October 31 - Peter Jackson, New Zealand film director
- October 31 - Larry Mullen, Jr., Irish drummer (U2)
- November 2 - k.d. lang, Canadian singer and songwriter
- November 4 - Daron Hagen, American composer
- November 19 - Meg Ryan, American actress
- November 20 - Anthony Warlow, Australian stage performer
- November 22 - Mariel Hemingway, American actress
- November 22 - Randal L. Schwartz, American computer programmer

December

- December 4 - Frank Reich, American football player
- December 8 - Ann Coulter, author, political commentator and attorney
- December 12 - Sarah Sutton, British actress
- December 15 - Karin Resetarits, Austrian journalist and politician
- December 19 - Matthew Waterhouse, British actor
- December 19 - Eric Allin Cornell, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- December 19 - Reggie White, American football player (d. 2004)
- December 25 - Ingrid Betancourt, Colombian senator
- December 30 - Douglas Coupland, Canadian author
- December 30 - Sean Hannity, American talk radio host and political commentator
- December 30 - Ben Johnson, Canadian athlete

Deaths

January-June

- January 4 - Erwin Schrödinger, Austrian physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1887)
- January 9 - Emily Greene Balch, American writer and pacifist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1867)
- January 10 - Dashiell Hammett, American writer (b. 1894)
- January 21 - Blaise Cendrars, Swiss writer (b. 1887)
- January 24 - Alfred Carlton Gilbert, American swimmer and inventor (b. 1884)
- January 26 - Stan Nichols, English cricketer (b. 1900)
- February 17 - Nita Naldi, American actress (b. 1897)
- February 20 - Percy Grainger, Australian composer (b. 1882)
- February 22 - Nick LaRocca, American jazz musician (b. 1889)
- February 26 - King Mohammed V of Morocco (b. 1909)
- March 3 - Paul Wittgenstein, Austrian-born pianist (b. 1887)
- March 8 - Thomas Beecham, English conductor (b. 1879)
- April 6 - Jules Bordet, Belgian immunologist and microbiologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1870)
- April 9 - Ahmet Zog, King of Albania (b. 1895)
- May 13 - Gary Cooper, American actor (b. 1901)
- May 30 - Rafael Leónidas Trujillo, dictator of the Dominican Republic (b. 1891)
- June 1 - Melvin Jones, American founder of Lions Clubs International (b. 1879)
- June 6 - Carl Jung, Swiss psychiatrist (b. 1875)
- June 17 - Jeff Chandler, American actor (b. 1918)
- June 30 - Lee DeForest, American inventor (b. 1873)

July-December

- July 1 - Louis-Ferdinand Céline, French writer (b. 1894)
- July 2 - Ernest Hemingway, American writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1899)
- July 6 - Woodall Rodgers, Mayor of Dallas, Texas (b. 1890)
- July 17 - Ty Cobb, baseball player (b. 1886)
- August 20 - Percy Williams Bridgman, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1882)
- September 18 - Dag Hammarskjöld, Swedish Secretary General of the United Nations, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1905)
- October 11 - Chico Marx, American comedian (b. 1887)
- October 13 - Maya Deren, Russian-born filmmaker (b. 1917)
- November 1 - Mordecai Ham, American evangelist (b. 1877)
- November 2 - James Thurber, American humorist (b. 1894)
- November 16 - Sam Rayburn, Speaker of the United States House of Representatives (b. 1882)
- December 20 - Earle Page, eleventh Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1880)
- December 25 - Otto Loewi, German-born pharmacologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1873)

Unknown date

- Empress Menen of Ethiopia, wife of Haile Selassie

Nobel Prizes

- Physics - Robert Hofstadter, Rudolf Ludwig Mössbauer
- Chemistry - Melvin Calvin
- Physiology or Medicine - Georg von Békésy
- Literature - Ivo Andric
- Peace - Dag Hammarskjöld - awarded posthumously Category:1961 ko:1961년 ja:1961年 simple:1961 th:พ.ศ. 2504

Orlando International Airport

Orlando International Airport is an airport located in Orlando, Florida. It is one of the busiest airports in Florida, owing to Orlando's popularity as a tourist destination and its enormous residential and commercial growth. The airport serves as a hub for Delta Connection carrier Chautauqua Airlines and a focus city for US Airways, Southwest Airlines, and AirTran Airways.

History

AirTran Airways Before 1974, the land the airport now sits on was largely owned by the United States Air Force who operated an airbase there. The base was known as McCoy Air Force Base and the civilian airport was known as the Orlando Jetport at McCoy. Commercial service to the Jetport began in 1962 as flights were migrated from the old Herndon Airport, now the Orlando Executive Airport. The airport was under control of the city of Orlando for just one year, and in 1975 the Greater Orlando Aviation Authority (GOAA) was founded. Their mission was to manage and build the Orlando International Airport and the Orlando Executive Airport. The airport gained its current name and international airport status a year later in 1976, but kept its old IATA airport code MCO and ICAO airport code KMCO. In 1978, MCO handled 5 million passengers. By 2000, that number had soared to 30 million. Today, MCO covers 23 square miles (60 km²), and is the third-largest airport in the United States by area (after Denver and Dallas). MCO also has North America's tallest control tower. Eastern Airlines used Orlando as a hub during the 1970s and early 1980s, and became "the official airline of Walt Disney World." Following Eastern's demise, Delta Air Lines assumed this role, although it later pulled most of its large aircraft operations from Orlando and focused its service there on regional jet flights. In 2004, Hurricane Charley caused some damage to the airport when it struck on the evening of August 13. On February 22, 2005, MCO became the first airport in Florida to accept E-Pass and SunPass toll transponders as a form of payment for parking. The system allows drivers to enter and exit a parking garage without pulling a ticket or stopping to pay the parking fee. The two toll roads that serve the airport, SR 528 and SR 417, use these systems for automatic toll collection. The Florida High Speed Rail Authority plans to connect MCO to Lakeland, Tampa, and St. Petersburg via high speed rail by 2009. [http://www.floridahighspeedrail.org/2c_phases.jsp]

Structure and function

2009 Orlando International Airport has a single main terminal connected by people mover to four airside terminals. Airsides 1 and 2 use baggage claim "A", while airsides 3 and 4 use baggage claim "B."

Airside 1 (gates 1-29)

- Aer Lingus (Dublin and Shannon)
- Air Jamaica (Kingston and Montego Bay)
- Air Transat (Montréal and Toronto)
- Alaska Airlines (Seattle/Tacoma)
- American Airlines (Boston, Chicago/O'Hare, Dallas/Fort Worth, Los Angeles, Miami, New York/LaGuardia, San Juan, St. Louis)
- Executive Air dba American Eagle (Nassau)
- ATA Airlines (Chicago/Midway, Indianapolis, San Juan)
- Bahamasair (Nassau)
- Canjet (Halifax and Ottawa)
- Continental Airlines (Cleveland, Houston/Intercontinental, Newark)
- Continental Express (Houston/Intercontinental)
- Gulfstream International Airlines dba Continental Connection (Key West and Miami)
- Copa Airlines (Panama City)
- LTU (Dusseldorf)
- Martinair (Amsterdam and San Jose (CR))
- Skyservice (Toronto)
- USA 3000 (Chicago/O'Hare, Cleveland, Milwaukee(starts Jan. 2006), Newark, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh)
- WestJet (Calgary, Hamilton and Toronto)
- Zoom Airlines (Ottawa(starts Feb. 2006)) Zoom Airlines

Airside 2 (gates 100-129)

- AirTran Airways (Akron, Atlanta, Baltimore/Washington, Bloomington, Charlotte, Chicago/Midway - starts Dec. 13, 2005, Dallas/Fort Worth, Dayton, Detroit, Flint, Indianapolis, Milwaukee, Minneapolis/St. Paul, Moline, Newport News, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Richmond, Rochester (NY), Washington/Dulles - starts Feb. 15, 2006)
- JetBlue (Boston, Newark, and New York/JFK)
- Southwest Airlines (Albany, Austin, Baltimore/Washington, Birmingham (AL), Buffalo, Chicago/Midway, Columbus, Fort Lauderdale, Fort Myers, Hartford, Houston/Hobby, Indianapolis, Islip, Jackson, Kansas City, Louisville, Manchester (NH), Nashville, New Orleans, Norfolk, Philadelphia, Phoenix, Pittsburgh, Providence, Raleigh/Durham, St. Louis, San Antonio, San Diego)

Airside 3 (gates 30-59)

- Air Canada (Calgary (starts Dec. 17), Halifax(starts Feb. 4), Montréal, Ottawa, Toronto)
- Excel Airways (London/Gatwick)
- Hooters Air (Scranton)
- Independence Air (Knoxville and Washington/Dulles)
- Northwest Airlines (Detroit, Flint, Grand Rapids(starts Jan. 2006), Indianapolis, Memphis, Milwaukee, Minneapolis/St. Paul)
- Spirit Airlines (Atlantic City, Chicago/O'Hare, Detroit, Ft. Lauderdale, Montego Bay, Nassau, New York/LaGuardia, San Juan)
- United Airlines (Los Angeles and San Francisco)
- Ted (Chicago/O'Hare, Denver, Washington/Dulles)
- US Airways (Albany, Baltimore, Buffalo, Charlotte, Columbus, Fort Lauderdale, Harrisburg, Hartford, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Providence, Syracuse, Washington/Reagan)
- US Airways operated by America West Airlines (Las Vegas, Phoenix)

Airside 4 (gates 60-99)

- Aeroméxico (Mexico City)
- British Airways (London/Gatwick)
- Condor (Frankfurt and San Jose (CR))
- Delta Air Lines (Atlanta, Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky, Salt Lake City)
- Atlantic Southeast Airlines dba Delta Connection (Dallas/Ft. Worth, Oklahoma City, Tulsa)
- Chautauqua dba Delta Connection (Asheville, Birmingham (AL), Charleston (SC), Columbus, Dayton, Fort Lauderdale, Greensboro, Greenville (SC), Huntsville, Key West, Knoxville, Lexington, Little Rock, Louisville, Miami, Mobile, Nashville, Nassau (Bahamas), Panama City, Pensacola, Raleigh/Durham, Richmond, Tallahassee)
- Comair dba Delta Connection (Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky, Columbia, Greensboro, Greenville (SC), Huntsville, Kansas City, Miami, Nashville, Nassau (Bahamas), Norfolk, Panama City, Raleigh/Durham, Richmond, San Antonio)
- Freedom Airlines dba Delta Connection (Akron/Canton (starts Dec. 15), Austin, Baton Rouge, Birmingham (AL), Columbia, Dayton, Fayetteville, Jackson, Knoxville, Little Rock, Louisville, Miami, Nashville, New Orleans, Raleigh/Durham, Richmond, Tri-Cities (TN))
- Song (Boston, Hartford, Las Vegas, Los Angeles, Newark, New York/JFK, New York/LaGuardia, San Francisco, San Juan)
- Frontier Airlines (Denver)
- Icelandair (Keflavik)
- Midwest Airlines (Kansas City, Milwaukee)
- Sun Country Airlines (Minneapolis/St. Paul)
- Virgin Atlantic (London/Gatwick and Manchester (UK))

External links

- [http://www.orlandoairports.net/ Orlando Airports homepage]
- Airport Category:Airports in Florida ja:オーランド国際空港

1976

1976 (MCMLXXVI) is a leap year starting on Thursday (link will take you to calendar).

Events

January-February

- January 12 - UN Security Council votes 11-1 to admit the Palestinian Liberation Organization
- January 15 - Would-be Gerald Ford presidential assassin Sara Jane Moore is sentenced to life in prison
- January 16 - Trial against jailed members of the Red Army Faction begins in Stuttgart, West Germany
- January 18 - The Scottish Labour Party is formed
- January 21 - The first commercial Concorde flight takes off.
- January 25 - 12 PIRA bombs explode in London's East End
- January 27 - The trial of SLA member Patty Hearst begins. She is found guilty of robbery on March 20
- February 4 - In Guatemala and Honduras an earthquake kills more than 22,000.
- February 4 - 1976 Winter Olympics open in Innsbruck, Austria
- February 11 - Clifford Alexander Jr is confirmed as 1st African-American Secretary of US Army.
- February 20 - The Southeast Asia Treaty Organization disbands
- February 24 - Cuba's current constitution enacted.
- February 27 - Western Sahara declares independence
- February 28 - Spain gives up territories in Sahara but retains its enclaves of Melilla and Ceuta

March

- March 1 - Merlyn Rees ends Special Category Status for those sentenced for crimes relating to the civil violence in Northern Ireland
- March 3 - Fleetwood Mac records Rumours, which will be a blockbuster album in 1977
- March 9-March 11 - Two coal mine explosions claim 26 lives at the Blue Diamond Coal Co. Scotia Mine, Letcher County, Ky
- March 17 - Rubin "Hurricane" Carter is retried
- March 18 - Harold Wilson resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
- March 19 - Actor Nicholas Downs born in Des Moines, Iowa at 6:45am
- March 20 - Patty Hearst is found guilty of armed robbery of a San Francisco bank
- March 24 - Argentina military forces depose president Isabel Peron
- March 27 - The first 4.6 miles of the Washington, DC subway system opens
- March 29 - Military junta of general Jorge Videla comes to power in Argentina
- March 31 - New Jersey Supreme Court rules that coma patient Karen Ann Quinlan could be disconnected from her respirator. She remains comatose and dies in 1985

April-May

- April 1 - Apple Computer Company is formed by Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak
- April 4 - Prince Norodom Sihanouk resigns as leader of Cambodia and is placed under house arrest
- April 5 - Jim Callaghan becomes Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
- April 5 - Large crowds lay wreaths at Beijing's Monument of the Martyrs in commemoration of the death of Premier Zhou Enlai. Poems against the Gang of Four are also displayed. This was followed by a police crackdown and became known as the Tiananmen Incident.
- April 13 - An explosion in an ammunition factory in Lapua, Finland kills 40
- April 16 - In India the minimum age for marriage is raised to 21 years for men and 18 years for women; it is to curb population growth
- April 21 - Great Bookie Robbery in Melbourne. Bandits steal A$1.4 Million in bookmakers settlements in Queen Street, Melbourne
- April 23 - Powerful punk rock group The Ramones release their first album which starts a new form of music
- April 25 - Portugal's new constitution enacted
- May 4 - Paris Wine Tasting of 1976 revolutionizes world of wine.
- May 9 - Ulrike Meinhof of RAF is found hanging in an apparent suicide in her cell in Stuttgart-Stannheim prison
- May 11 - President Gerald Ford signs Federal Election Campaign Act.
- May 24 - Washington, DC Concorde service begins

June

- June 1 - UK and Iceland end the Cod War
- June 5 - Teton Dam collapses in southeast Idaho in the U.S., killing 11 people.
- June 14 - the trial begins at Oxford Crown Court of Donald Neilson, the killer known as the Black Panther.
- June 16 - Soweto riots in South Africa mark the beginning of the end of apartheid
- June 20 - Hundreds of Western tourists are moved from Beirut and taken to safety in Syria by the US military, following the murder of the US ambassador.
- June 20 - Czechoslovakia beat West Germany 5-3 on penalties to win Euro 76, after the game had ended 2-2 after extra time.
- June 27 - Palestinian extremists hijack an Air France plane in Greece with 246 passengers and 12 crew. They take it to Entebbe, Uganda, where Israeli commandos storms it on July 4
- Sismik incident starts when the Turkish survey ship Sismik entered Greek waters.

July

- July 2 - North Vietnam and South Vietnam united to form the Socialist Republic of Vietnam - a Communist country
- July 3 - Supreme Court of the United States rules on Gregg v. Georgia and decides that death penalty is not inherently cruel or unusual and is a constitutionally acceptable form of punishment
- July 3 - The great heat wave in the United Kingdom, which is currently suffering from drought conditions, reaches its peak.
- July 4 - United States Bicentennial
- July 4 - Israeli airborne commandos free 103 hostages being held by Palestinian hijackers of an Air France plane at Uganda's Entebbe Airport; one Israeli and several Ugandan soldiers are killed in raid.
- July 7 - German left-wing terrorists Monika Berberich, Gabriella Rollnick, Juliane Plambeck and Inge Viett escape from Lehrterstrasse maximum security prison in West Berlin
- July 10 - Explosion in Seveso, Italy, kills a large number of people
- July 16-July 20 - Albert Spaggiari and his gang break into the vault of the Societe Generale Bank in Nice, France
- July 17 - The 1976 Summer Olympics begin in Montreal, Canada.
- July 17 - East Timor is declared the 27th province of Indonesia
- July 19 - Sagarmatha National Park in Nepal is created.
- July 20 - Viking program: The Viking 1 lander successfully lands on Mars
- July 21 - A bomb kills Christopher Ewart, British ambassador to the Irish Republic
- July 27 - United Kingdom breaks diplomatic relations with Uganda
- July 28 - Tangshan earthquake flattens Tangshan,China, killing 242,769 people, and 164,851 people are heavily injured
- July 29 - In New York City, the "Son of Sam" pulls a gun from a paper bag killing one and seriously wounding another in the first of a series of attacks that terrorized the city for the next year.
- July 30 - In Santiago, capital of Chile, Cruzeiro from Brazil wins River Plate from Argentina and are the Copa Libertadores de América champions.
- July 31 - NASA releases the famous Face on Mars photo, taken by Viking 1

August

- August 1 - the Caribbean nation of Trinidad and Tobago becomes a republic, replacing Queen Elizabeth II with an elected president as their Head of State.
- August 2 - A gunman murders Andrea Wilborn and Stan Farr, and injures Priscilla Davis and Gus Gavrel in an incident at Priscilla's Mansion at Mockingbird Lane in Fort Worth, Texas. T. Cullen Davis, Priscilla's husband and one of the richest men in Texas, was tried and found innocent for Andrea's murder. He was later found innocent of a plot to kill several people, including Priscilla and a judge, and a wrongful death lawsuit. Cullen went broke afterwards
- August 4 - First outbreak of Legionnaire's disease kills 29 at the American Legion convention in Philadelphia
- August 5 - Racing Champion Niki Lauda suffers serious burns in the German Grand prix; the Great Clock of Westminster (or Big Ben) suffers internal damage and stops running for over nine months
- August 6 - Former UK Postmaster General John Stonehouse is sentenced for seven years for fraud
- August 7 - Viking program: Viking 2 enters into orbit around Mars
- August 14 - 10,000 Protestant and Catholic women demonstrate for peace in Northern Ireland
- August 14 - The Senegalese political party PAI-Rénovation is legally recognized. PAI-Rénovation thus becomes the third legal party in the country.
- August 18 - In North Korea at Panmunjom, two US soldiers are killed while trying to chop down part of a tree in the Demilitarized Zone which had obscured their view
- August 24 - Uruguayan army captures Marcelo Gelman and his pregnant wife. Marcelo is later killed and his wife and child disappears

September-October

- September 3 - Viking program: The Viking 2 spacecraft lands at Utopia Planitia on Mars takes the first close-up, color photos of the planet's surface
- September 6 - Cold War: Soviet air force pilot Lt. Viktor Belenko lands a MiG-25 jet fighter at Hakodate on the island of Hokkaido in Japan and requests political asylum from the United States
- Military Junta in power in Argentina.
- September 17 - Space Shuttle Enterprise rolled out.
- September 21 - Seychelles joins the United Nations.
- September 21 - Orlando Letelier is assassinated in Washington, D.C. by agents of Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet.
- October - The Damned release New Rose - the first ever single released / marketed as "punk rock".
- October 6 - Cubana Flight 455 crashes due to a bomb placed by anti-Castrist militants, after taking off from Bridgetown, Barbados. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4535661.stm]
- October 6 - Students gathering at Thammasat University in Bangkok, Thailand to protest the return of ex-dictator Thanom are massacred by a coalition of right-wing paramilitary and government forces, triggering the return of the military to government.
- October 12 - The People's Republic of China announces that Hua Guofeng is the successor to the late Mao Tse-tung as chairman of Communist Party of China
- October 19 - Copyright Act of 1976 extends copyright duration for an additional 20 years in the United States
- October 22 - Cearbhall Ó Dálaigh, fifth President of Ireland, resigns after being publicly insulted by the Minister for Defence.
- October 25 - Full pardon given to Clarence Norris, last known survivor of the Scottsboro Boys.

November-December

- November 2 - U.S. presidential election, 1976: Jimmy Carter defeats incumbent Gerald Rudolph Ford to become first candidate from deep south to win since the Civil War.
- November 15 - First Megamouth Shark is discovered off Oahu in Hawaii
- November 26 - Little known company Microsoft is officially registered with the Office of the Secretary of the State of New Mexico.
- December 1 - Angola joins the United Nations
- December 3 - Patrick Hillery is elected unopposed as the sixth President of Ireland.
- December 15 - Samoa joins the United Nations
- December 23 - New volcano, Murara, began erupting in eastern Zaire.

Unknown dates

- Christopher Maier, American murder victim born, died 1997
- First laser printer introduced by IBM - the IBM 3800
- Cray-1, the first commercially developed supercomputer, invented by Seymour Cray
- California's sodomy law repealed.
- The term memetics first proposed by Richard Dawkins in his book The Selfish Gene.
- Toronto Blue Jays created
- CN Tower built in Toronto - The tallest free standing land structure.
- Diffie-Hellman cryptography proposed
- Plans to move the Nigerian capital from Lagos to Abuja are approved.
- Ebola is first discovered in Zaire
- Women For Sobriety established.

Births

January-March

- January 2 - Paz Vega, Spanish actress
- January 7 - Éric Gagné, Canadian Major League Baseball player
- January 7 - Alfonso Soriano, Dominican Major League Baseball player
- January 11 - Amanda Peet, American actress (born really 1972?)
- January 20 - Gretha Smit, Dutch speed skater
- January 21 - Emma Bunton, English musician (Spice Girls)
- January 28 - Mark Madsen, American basketball player
- January 31 - Buddy Rice, American race car driver
- February 2 - James Hickman, British swimmer
- February 4 - Cam'ron, Harlem, New York rapper
- February 9 - Vladimir Guerrero, Dominican Major League Baseball player
- February 10 - Lance Berkman, baseball player
- February 12 - Silvia Saint, Czech actress
- February 15 - Brandon Boyd, American musician (Incubus)
- February 20 - Ed Graham, British drummer (The Darkness)
- February 28 - Ja Rule, American rapper
- March 5 - Sarunas Jasikevicius, Lithuanian basketball player
- March 8 - Freddie Prinze Jr., American actor
- March 20 - Chester Bennington, American musician (Linkin Park)
- March 22 - Teun de Nooijer, Dutch field hockey player
- March 22 - Reese Witherspoon, American actress
- March 23 - Keri Russell, American actress
- March 24 - Aaron Brooks, American football player
- March 24 - Peyton Manning, American football player
- March 25 - Juvenile, American rapper
- March 26 - Amy Smart, American actress

April-June

- April 6 - Candace Cameron, American actress
- April 13 - Jonathan Brandis, American actor (d. 2003)
- April 18 - Melissa Joan Hart, American actress
- April 25 - Tim Duncan, West Indian basketball player
- April 25 - Rainer Schuettler, German tennis player
- May 3 - Beto, Portuguese footballer
- May 4 - Jason Michaels, baseball player
- May 15 - Tyler Walker, baseball player
- May 19 - Kevin Garnett, American basketball player
- May 20 - Ramón Hernández, Venezuelan Major League Baseball player
- May 25 - Miguel Tejada, Dominican Major League Baseball player
- May 31 - Colin Farrell, Irish actor
- June 8 - Lindsay Davenport, American tennis player
- June 10 - Freddy Garcia, Venezuelan Major League Baseball player
- June 13 - Jason 'J' Brown, English musician (5ive)
- June 23 - Brandon Stokley, American football player

July-September

- July 1 - Patrick Kluivert, Dutch footballer
- July 1 - Ruud van Nistelrooy, Dutch footballer
- July 3 - Andrea Barber, American actress
- July 2 - Gabriel Mughadam, Bodybuilder
- July 4 - Daijiro Kato, Japanese motorcycle racer
- July 8 - Ellen MacArthur, English yachtswoman
- July 9 - Shelton Benjamin, American professional wrestler
- July 9 - Fred Savage, American actor
- July 11 - Eduardo Najera, Mexican basketball player
- July 20 - Alex Yoong, Malaysian race car driver
- July 23 - Judit Polgar, Hungarian chess player
- July 31 - Annie Parisse, American actress
- August 6 - Melissa George, Australian actress
- August 9 - Jessica Capshaw, American actress
- August 9 - Rhona Mitra, English actress
- August 8 - JC Chasez, American singer
- August 12 - Antoine Walker, American basketball player
- August 14 - Alex Albrecht, American television personality
- August 15 - Boudewijn Zenden, Dutch football player
- August 27 - Carlos Moyà, Spanish tennis player
- August 27 - Mark Webber, Australian race car driver
- September 7 - Stevie Case (Killcreek), American video game celebrity
- September 7 - Shannon Elizabeth, American actress
- September 8 - Abi Titmuss, British TV presenter and model
- September 8 - Sjeng Schalken, Dutch tennis player
- September 10 - Gustavo Kuerten, Brazilian tennis player
- September 16 - Tina Barrett, English singer (S Club 7)
- September 22 - Ronaldo, Brazilian footballer
- September 25 - Chauncey Billups, American basketball player
- September 26 - Michael Ballack, German footballer
- September 29 - Andriy Shevchenko, Ukrainian footballer

October-December

- October 1 - Blu Cantrell, American rapper
- October 4 - Alicia Silverstone, American actress
- October 10 - Bob Burnquist, Brazilian skateboarder
- October 19 - Michael Young, baseball player
- October 23 - Ryan Reynolds, Canadian actor
- November 6 - Pat Tillman, American football player (d. 2004)
- November 7 - Mark Philippoussis, Australian tennis player
- November 19 - Jun Shibata, Japanese singer and songwriter
- November 24 - Chen Lu, Chinese figure skater
- November 29 - Anna Faris, American actress
- December 1 - Matthew Shepard, American murder victim (d. 1998)
- December 12 - Dan Hawkins, British guitarist (The Darkness)
- December 13 - Tom Delonge, American musician (Blink-182)
- December 15 - Baichung Bhutia, Indian footballer
- December 17 - Takeo Spikes, American football player
- December 18 - Koyuki, Japanese actress and model

Deaths

January-March

- January 8 - Zhou Enlai, Premier of the People's Republic of China (b. 1898)
- January 10 - Howlin' Wolf, American musician (b. 1910)
- January 12 - Agatha Christie, English writer (b. 1890)
- January 23 - Paul Robeson, American actor, singer, writer, and activist (b. 1898)
- January 30 - Mance Lipscomb, American singer (b. 1895)
- February 1 - Werner Heisenberg, German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1901)
- February 1 - George Whipple, American scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1878)
- February 2 - Zlatyu Boyadzhiev, Bulgarian painter (b. 1903)
- February 6 - Vince Guaraldi, American musician (b. 1928)
- February 9 - Percy Faith, Canadian-born musician and composer (b. 1908)
- February 11 - Lee J Cobb, American actor (b. 1911)
- February 11 - Alexander Lippisch, German aerodynamicist (b. 1894)
- February 11 - Charlie Naughton, Scottish actor (b. 1886)
- February 12 - Sal Mineo, American actor (b. 1939)
- February 13 - Lily Pons, American soprano (b. 1898)
- February 20 - René Cassin, French judge, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1887)
- February 22 - Florence Ballard, American singer (The Supremes) (b. 1943)
- March 6 - Max 'Slapsie Maxie' Rosenbloom, American boxer and actor (b. 1903)
- March 7 - Wright Patman, American politician (b. 1893)
- March 14 - Busby Berkeley, American choreographer and director (b. 1895)
- March 17 - Luchino Visconti, Italian theatre and film director (b. 1906)
- March 19 - Paul Kossoff, British guitarist (Free) (b. 1950)
- March 24 - Bernard Montgomery, British field marshal (b. 1897)

April-June

- April 1 - Max Ernst, German artist (b. 1891)
- April 5 - Howard Hughes, American aviation pioneer, film director, and eccentric (b. 1905)
- April 9 - Dagmar Nordstrom, American composer, pianist, one of The Nordstrom Sisters (b. 1903)
- April 18 - Henrik Dam, Dutch biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1895)
- April 26 - Sid James, South African actor (b. 1913)
- May 9 - Jens Bjørneboe, Norwegian author (b. 1920)
- May 9 - Ulrike Meinhof, German terrorist (b. 1934)
- May 11 - Alvar Aalto, Finnish architect (b. 1898)
- May 14 - Keith Relf, British musician (The Yardbirds) (b. 1943)
- May 26 - Martin Heidegger, German philosopher (b. 1889)
- May 27 - Hilde Hildebrand, German actress, (b. 1897)
- May 31 - Jacques Monod, French biologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1910)
- June 10 - Adolph Zukor, Hungarian-born film producer (b. 1893)
- June 15 - Jimmy Dykes, baseball player and manager (b. 1896)
- June 25 - Johnny Mercer, American songwriter (b. 1909)
- June 30 - Firpo Marberry, baseball player (b. 1898)

July-September

- July 1 - Zhang Mintian, General Secretary of the Communist Party of China (b. 1900)
- July 4 - Antoni Słonimski, Polish poet and writer (b. 1895)
- July 13 - Joachim Peiper, German military leader (b. 1915)
- August 6 - Gregor Piatigorsky, Russian cellist (b. 1903)
- August 22 - Juscelino Kubitschek, President of Brazil (b. 1902)
- August 25 - Eyvind Johnson, Swedish writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1900)
- August 26 - Lotte Lehmann, German soprano (b. 1888)
- August 27 - Mukesh, Indian singer (b. 1923)
- September 2 - Stanisław Grochowiak, Polish writer (b. 1934)
- September 9 - Mao Zedong, Chinese leader (b. 1893)
- September 26 - Lavoslav Ružička, Croatian chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1887)

October-December

- October 5 - Lars Onsager, Norwegian chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1903)
- October 11 - Alfredo Bracchi, Italian author (b. 1897)
- November 12 - Walter Piston, American composer (b. 1894)
- December 2 - Danny Murtaugh, baseball player and manager (b. 1917)
- December 4 - Benjamin Britten, English composer (b. 1913)
- December 6 - João Goulart, President of Brazil (b. 1918)
- December 28 - Katharine Byron, U.S. Congresswoman (b. 1903)

Nobel Prizes

- Physics - Burton Richter, Samuel Chao Chung Ting
- Chemistry - William Nunn Lipscomb, Jr
- Physiology or Medicine - Baruch S. Blumberg, D Carleton Gajdusek
- Literature - Saul Bellow
- Peace - Betty Williams and Mairead Corrigan
- Economics - Milton Friedman

Templeton Prize

- Cardinal Suenens Category:1976 ko:1976년 ja:1976年 simple:1976 th:พ.ศ. 2519

1982

1982 (MCMLXXXII) is a common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar.

Events

January

- January 6 - William Bonin is convicted of being the "freeway killer".
- January 8 - AT&T agrees to divest itself into twenty-two subdivisions.
- January 10 - The lowest ever UK temperature of -27.2°C is recorded at Braemar, in Aberdeenshire. This equals the record set in the same place in 1895.
- January 11 - Mark Thatcher, son of the British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, disappears in the Sahara during Paris-Dakar rally. He is rescued January 14.
- January 11 to January 17 - A brutal cold snap sends temperatures to all-time record lows in dozens of cities throughout the Midwestern United States.
- January 13 - Shortly after takeoff, Air Florida Flight 90 crashes into Washington, DC's 14th Street Bridge and falls into the Potomac River, killing 78. Half an hour later, a Washington Metro train derails, killing three. It is the system's first fatal accident.
- January 17 - Cold Sunday sweeps over northern United States.
- January 26 - Mauno Koivisto elected the President of Finland.
- January 28 - James L. Dozier is rescued by Italian anti-terrorism forces after 42 days of captivity under the Red Brigades.

February

- February 1 - Senegal and Gambia form a loose confederation.
- February 2 - Hama Massacre begins in Syria.
- February 3 - Syrian president Hafez al-Assad orders army to purge the city of Harran of the Muslim Brotherhood.
- February 5 - Laker Airways collapses, leaving 6,000 passengers stranded and with debts of £270 million.
- February 15 - The oil platform Ocean Ranger sinks during a storm off the coast of Newfoundland, killing 84 rig workers.
- February 19 - The DeLorean Car factory in Belfast is put into receivership.
- February 24 - Wayne Gretzky of the Edmonton Oilers scores his 77th goal of the National Hockey League season, breaking the previous record of 76. He would go on to score 92 goals that season, which remains the record.

March

- March 1 - Jimmy Page's soundtrack album Death Wish II is released by Swan Song Records
- March 10 - The United States places an embargo on Libyan oil imports, alleging Libyan support of terrorist groups.
- March 10 - Syzygy: all 9 planets align on the same side of the Sun.
- March 18 - An Argentinean scrap metal dealer raises the Argentinean flag in South Georgia
- March 19 - Falklands War approaches: Argentines land on South Georgia Island, precipitating war.
- March 26 - A ground breaking ceremony for the Vietnam Veterans Memorial is held in Washington, DC
- March 29 - Royal Assent in London to the Canada Act 1982 sets the stage for the repatriation of the Canadian Constitution (see April 17 below).
- March 30 - Pakistan in Karachi Adeel Mansoor is born.

April

- April 2 - Falklands War begins: Argentina invades the Falkland Islands.
- April 4 - Falklands War: the British Falkland Islands government surrenders, placing the islands in Argentinean control
- April 6 - A blizzard unprecedented in size for April dumps 1-2 feet of snow on the northeastern U.S., closing schools and businesses, snarling traffic, and canceling several major league baseball games.
- April 17 - By Proclamation of the Queen of Canada on Parliament Hill, Canada repatriates its constitution, granting full political independence from the United Kingdom; included is the country's first entrenched bill of rights, called the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.
- April 23 - Dennis Wardlow, Mayor of Key West, Florida, declares the independent Conch Republic for a day.
- April 25 - Israel completes withdrawing from the Sinai peninsula per the Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty.

May

- May 1 - Falklands War: A Royal Air Force Vulcan bomber takes off from Ascension Island and bombs Stanley Airport.
- May 2 - Falklands War: Nuclear submarine HMS Conqueror sinks the Argentine cruiser General Belgrano.
- The Weather Channel airs on cable television for the first time.
- May 5 - Unabomber bomb explodes in the computer science department at Vanderbilt University; secretary Janet Smith is injured.
- May 12 - Spanish priest Juan Hernandes tries to stab Pope John Paul II with a bayonet during the latter's pilgrimage to the Fatima shrine.
- May 21 - Falklands War: Royal Marines and paratroopers from the British Task Force land at San Carlos Bay on the Falkland Islands and raise the Union Jack.
- May 23 - Falklands War - HMS Antelope of the Royal Navy explodes.
- May 24 - Iranian troops retake Khorramshahr.
- May 26 - Kielder Water, artificial lake in Northumbria, opened.
- May 28 - British troops reach Darwin in the Falkland Islands
- May 29 - Falklands War: In the Battle of Goose Green, British Paratroopers defeat a larger force of Argentine troops in the first land battle of the war.
- May 30 - Spain becomes the 16th member of NATO and the first nation to enter the alliance since West Germany's admission in 1955.
- May 31 - Falklands War: Battle of Stanley.

June

- June 6 - 1982 Lebanon War begins: Forces under Israeli Defense Minister Ariel Sharon invade southern Lebanon in their "Operation Peace for the Galilee," eventually reaching as far north as the capital Beirut.
- June 6 - United Nations Security Council votes to demand that Israel withdraw its troops from Lebanon
- June 8 - President Reagan became the first American chief executive to address a joint session of the British Parliament.
- June 12 - 750,000 people rally against nuclear weapons in New York City's Central Park. Jackson Browne, James Taylor, Bruce Springsteen, and Linda Ronstadt are in attendance
- June 13 - In Alberta, Canada 15 members of the Black Leopards Karate Club demolish a house with bare hands and feet with owner's consent
- June 13 - Fahd becomes King of Saudi Arabia upon the death of his brother, Khalid.
- June 14 - Falklands War ends: British forces reach the outskirts of Stanley after "yomping" across East Falkland from San Carlos Bay. They arrive to find the Argentine forces flying white flags of surrender. A formal surrender is agreed that day.
- June 19 - The body of "God's Banker", Roberto Calvi, chairman of Banco Ambrosiano is found hanging beneath Blackfriars Bridge in London.
- June 22 - A British Airways Boeing 747 suffered a temporary four-engine flameout and damage to the exterior of the plane after flying through the otherwise undetected ash plume from Indonesia's Galunggung.

July-August

- July 1 - The Reverend Sun Myung Moon marries 4,150 of his followers at New York City's Madison Square Garden.
- July 2 - Larry Walters uses 45 helium balloons and a lawn chair to propel himself to 16,000 feet and flies from San Pedro, California to Long Beach.
- July 4 - Four Iranian diplomats have been kidnapped upon Israel invasion of Lebanon.
- July 9 - A Boeing 727 carrying Pan Am Flight 759 crashes in Kenner, Louisiana killing all 146 on board and eight on the ground
- July 9 - An intruder Michael Fagan visits the Queen in her bedroom for a chat
- July 11 - Italy beat West Germany 3-1 to win Football World Cup 1982 in Spain
- July 16 - The Reverend Sun Myung Moon is sentenced to 18 months in prison and fined $25,000 for tax fraud and conspiracy to obstruct justice.
- July 20 - The Provisional IRA detonates two bombs in central London, killing eight soldiers, wounding 47 people, and leading to the deaths of 7 horses.
- July 21- HMS Hermes, the Royal Navy flagship during the Falklands War, returns home to Portsmouth to a hero's welcome.
- July 23 - The International Whaling Commission decides to end commercial whaling by 1985-86.
- August 4 - United Nations Security Council votes to censure Israel because its troops are still in Lebanon
- August 20 - Lebanese Civil War: A multinational force lands in Beirut to oversee the PLO withdrawal from Lebanon. French troops arrive August 21, US marines August 25

September

- September 5 - Iowa paperboy Johnny Gosch kidnapped.
- September 14 - Bomb kills President-elect of Lebanon, Bashir Gemayel. His brother is elected president on September 23
- September 15 - Princess Grace of Monaco dies from injuries sustained in a car crash the previous day
- September 18 - Lebanese Christian Militia kill hundreds in the Palestinians in Sabra and Chatila refugee camps in West Beirut
- September 25 - 400,000 march in Israel demanding the resignation of Prime Minister Menachem Begin
- September 26 - Thermals take Australian parachutist Rich Collins up to 2800 meters during a jump; he almost blacks out due to lack of oxygen. He releases his main parachute to fall to lower altitude and lands by his reserve parachute
- September 29 to October 1 - The Tylenol scare is sparked after seven people in the Chicago, Illinois area die after ingesting capsules laced with potassium cyanide

October

- October 1 - Helmut Kohl replaces Helmut Schmidt as Chancellor of Germany through a Constructive Vote of No Confidence.
- October 8 - Poland bans Solidarity
- October 11 - The Mary Rose, flagship of Henry VIII of England that sank in 1545 is raised
- October 19 - John De Lorean is arrested for selling cocaine for undercover FBI agents. He was later found "not guilty", due to entrapment.
- October 28 - The Socialist Party win the election in Spain - Felipe González is elected Prime Minister

November

- November 2 - The fourth terrestrial television channel launched in the United Kingdom known as Channel 4 with the first programme broadcasted was the game show Countdown and is still in production. S4C, the Welsh equlvalent of Channel 4 launched the previous day
- November 3 - A Gasoline tanker explodes in the Salang Tunnel in Afghanistan, killing 2,000+ people.
- November 7 - The first public demonstration of the Thames Barrier
- November 12 - In the Soviet Union, former KGB head Yuri Andropov is selected to become the general secretary of the Soviet Communist Party's Central Committee, succeeding the late Leonid I. Brezhnev.
- November 13 - The Vietnam Veterans Memorial is dedicated in Washington D.C. after a march to its site by thousands of Vietnam War veterans.
- November 14 - The leader of Poland's outlawed Solidarity movement, Lech Wałęsa, is released from 11 months of internment near the Soviet border
- November 20 - Completing a wacky 57-yard kickoff return that includes five laterals, Kevin Moen runs through Stanford band members who had prematurely come onto the field. His touchdown stands and California wins 25-20.
- November 28 - Representatives from 88 countries gather in Geneva to discuss world trade and ways to work toward aspects of free trade
- November 29 - Soviet invasion of Afghanistan: The United Nations General Assembly passes United Nations Resolution 37/37, stating that the Soviet Union forces should withdraw from Afghanistan.

December

- December 2 - At the University of Utah, 61-year-old retired dentist Barney Clark becomes the first person to receive a permanent artificial heart (he lived for 112 days with the device)
- December 3 - A final soil sample is taken from the site of Times Beach, Missouri. It was found to contain 300 times the safe level of dioxin.
- December 4 - The People's Republic of China adopts its current constitution.
- December 7 - First US execution by lethal injection is carried out in Texas.
- December 12 - Women's peace protest at Greenham Common - 30,000 women hold hands and form a human chain around the 14.5 km (9 mi) perimeter fence
- December 23 - The Environmental Protection Agency recommends the evacuation of Times Beach, Missouri due to dangerous levels of dioxin contamination.
- December 26 - Time Magazine's Man of the Year was for the first time given to a non-human, a computer.

Unknown dates

- The Vietnam Memorial is built in Washington D.C.
- A brief but severe recession begins in the United States.
- Seattle officially dubbed the Emerald City after a contest held to choose a new city slogan.
- George Stigler wins The Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel.
- Eric Dammann / Future in Our Hands, Anwar Fazal / Consumer Interpol, Petra Kelly, Participatory Institute for Development Alternatives (PIDA) and Sir George Trevelyan / Wrekin Trust win the Right Livelihood Award.

Births

January-May

- January 1 - David Nalbandian, Argentine tennis player
- January 1 - Anna Williams, model
- January 2 - Cyrus Farivar, American journalist
- January 5 - Janica Kostelic, Croatian skier
- January 12 - Dontrelle Willis, American baseball player
- January 13 - Guillermo Coria, Argentine tennis player
- January 15 - Benjamin Agosto, American skater
- January 17 - Dwyane Wade, American basketball player
- January 19 - Jodie Sweetin, American actress
- February 9 - Ami Suzuki, Japanese singer
- February 10 - Mon Redee Sut Txi, a Malaysian athlete
- February 10 - Justin Gatlin, American athlete
- February 17 - Adriano Leite Ribeiro, Brazilian footballer (soccer player)
- February 22 - Jenna Haze, American actress
- February 28 - Andres Nuiamäe, Estonian soldier (d. 2004)
- March 2 - Ben Roethlisberger, American football player
- March 3 - Jessica Biel, American actress
- March 11 - Thora Birch, American actress
- March 25 - Danica Patrick, American race car driver
- March 25 - Sean Faris, American actor
- March 30 - Jason Dohring, American actor
- March 30 - Javier Garcia Portillo, Spanish footballer (soccer player)
- April 1 - Sam Huntington, American actor
- April 8 - Judy Star, American actress
- April 13- Donal Moynihan, Gaelic Footballer
- April 22 - Kaká, Brazilian footballer (soccer player)
- April 24- Kelly Clarkson, American singer
- April 30 - Kirsten Dunst, American actress
- May 6 - Chaylon Brewster, Canadian HipHop Producer and East Coast Music Award Winner
- May 9 - Rachel Boston, American beauty queen and actress
- May 15 - Veronica Campbell, Jamaican athlete
- May 17 - Tony Parker, French basketball player
- May 18 - Eric West, American actor and singer
- May 20 - Petr Čech, Czech footballer (soccer player)
- May 26 - Yoko Matsugane, Japanese model

June-October

- June 1 - Justine Henin-Hardenne, Belgian tennis player
- June 3 - Yelena Isinbayeva, Russian athlete
- June 8 - Nadia Petrova, Russian tennis player
- June 10 - Tara Lipinski, American figure skater
- June 11 - Diana Taurasi, American basketball player
- June 11 - Eldar Rønning, Norwegian cross-country Skier
- June 21 - Prince William of Wales
- June 25 - Mikhail Youzhny, Russian tennis player
- June 30 - Lizzy Caplan, American actress
- July 1 - Hilarie Burton, American actress and VJ
- July 8 - Sophia Bush, American actress
- July 8 - Hakim Warrick, American basketball player
- July 12 - Antonio Cassano, Italian footballer (soccer player)
- July 18 - Priyanka Chopra, Indian actress and beauty queen
- July 18 - Ryan Cabrera, American musician
- July 19 - Jared Padalecki, American actor
- July 24 - Anna Paquin, Canadian-born actress
- July 25 - Brad Renfro, American actor
- July 29 - Allison Mack, American actress
- August 2 - Hélder Postiga, Portuguese footballer (soccer player)
- August 7 - Yana Klochkova, Ukrainian swimmer
- August 8 - Roger Federer, Swiss tennis player
- August 9 - Tyson Gay, American athlete
- August 19 - Erika Christensen, American actress
- August 28 - LeAnn Rimes, American singer
- August 30 - Andy Roddick, American tennis player
- August 31 - José Manuel Reina Páez, Spanish footballer (soccer player)
- September 3 - Fearne Cotton, British television presenter
- September 4- Alessandra Rubi Streignard Villarreal, Spanish actress, model, and singer
- September 7 - Lorne Berfield, American actor
- September 9 - Ai Otsuka, Japanese singer and songwriter
- September 13 - Nenê, Brazilian basketball player
- September 22 - Billie Piper, English singer and actress
- September 27 - Lil Wayne, American rapper
- September 30 - Lacey Chabert, American actress
- October 7 - Robby Ginepri, American tennis player
- October 11 - Salim Stoudamire, American basketball player
- October 13 - Ian James Thorpe, Australian swimmer
- October 15 - Saif Saaeed Shaheen, Quatari athlete

November-December

- November 2 - Kyoko Fukada,Japanese actress, model and singer
- November 10 - Heather Matarazzo, American actress
- November 11 - Brittny Gastineau, American model and socialite
- November 12 - Anne Hathaway, American actress
- November 13 - Kumi Koda, Japanese singer
- November 29 - Ashley Force, American race car driver
- December 3 - Michael Essien, Ghanaian soccer player
- December 13 - Anthony Callea, Australian singer
- December 30 - Kristin Laura Kreuk, Canadian actress

Deaths

January-June

- January 19 - Elis Regina, Brazilian singer (b. 1945)
- January 30 - Lightning Hopkins, American musician (b. 1912)
- February 5 - Neil Aggett, South African labor leader (suicide)
- February 11 - Eleanor Powell, American dancer (b. 1912)
- February 11 - Takashi Shimura, Japanese actor (b. 1905)
- February 12 - Victor Jory, Canadian actor (b. 1902)
- February 17 - Thelonious Monk, American jazz pianist (b. 1917)
- February 17 - Lee Strasberg, American actor (b. 1901)
- March 2 - Philip K. Dick, American author (b. 1928)
- March 5 - John Belushi, American actor (b. 1949)
- March 6 - Ayn Rand, Russian-born author (b. 1905)
- March 19 - Randy Rhoads, American guitarist (b. 1956)
- March 28 - William Giauque, Canadian chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1895)
- April 5 - Abe Fortas, U.S. Supreme Court Justice (b. 1910)
- April 15 - Arthur Lowe, British actor (b. 1915)
- May 1 - William Primrose, Scottish violist (b. 1903)
- May 8 - Gilles Villeneuve, Canadian race car driver (racing accident) (b. 1950)
- May 29 - Romy Schneider, Austrian actress (cardiac arrest) (b. 1938)
- June 2 - Fazal Ilahi Chaudhry, President of Pakistan (b. 1904)
- June 8 - Satchel Paige, baseball player (b. 1906)
- June 12 - Karl von Frisch, Austrian zoologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1886)
- June 14 - Arthur Coles, Australian businessman and philanthropist (b. 1892)
- June 18 - Curt Jurgens, German actor (b. 1915)

July-December

- July 29 - Vladimir Zworykin, Russian-born inventor (b. 1889)
- August 15 - Hugo Theorell, Swedish scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1903)
- August 23 - Stanford Moore, American biochemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1913)
- September 11 - Wilfredo Lam, Cuban artist (b. 1902)
- September 14 - Grace Patricia Kelly, American actress and Princess of Monaco (b. 1929)
- October 4 - Glenn Gould, Canadian pianist (b. 1932)
- October 8 - Philip Noel-Baker, Baron Noel-Baker, Canadian-born peace activist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1889)
- October 18 - Bess Truman, First Lady of the United States (b. 1885)
- October 22 - Savitri Devi, French-born writer and philosopher (b. 1905)
- November 10 - Leonid Brezhnev, Premier of the Soviet Union (b. 1906)
- November 15 - Vinoba Bhave, Indian educator (b. 1895)
- November 29 - Percy Williams, Canadian athlete (b. 1908)
- December 24 - Louis Aragon, French writer (b. 1897)

Nobel Prizes

- Physics - Kenneth G. Wilson
- Chemistry - Aaron Klug
- Medicine - Sune K. Bergström, Bengt I. Samuelsson, John R. Vane
- Literature - Gabriel García Márquez
- Peace - Alva Myrdal, Alfonso García Robles

Fields Medalists

- Alain Connes, William Thurston, Shing-Tung Yau

Templeton Prize

- Billy Graham Category:1982 als:1982 ko:1982년 ms:1982 ja:1982年 simple:1982 th:พ.ศ. 2525

Spessard Holland East-West Expressway

Florida State Road 408, also known as the Spessard Holland East-West Expressway, is a 'limited access' toll road connecting Florida's Turnpike in western Orange County, Interstate 4 in Downtown Orlando and the Central Florida GreeneWay. The East-West was constructed by the Orlando Orange County Expressway Authority or OOCEA from 1972-1973 and extended from State Road 50 East of Goldenrod Road to State Road 50 at Kirkman Road in West Orlando. It was named in honor of former Florida governor Spessard Holland. Two toll plazas on the road are also named in his honor--the Holland East and Holland West. The original route for the East-West was 13.3 miles and cost over $89 million to construct.

The Eastern Extension

The OOCEA began construction of the Eastern Extension of the East-West Expressway in 1987 and completed it on May 12, 1989. The extension took Florida State Road 408 from its terminus near Goldenrod Road to its present-day terminus at State Road 50 and the Central Florida Research Park which abuts the University of Central Florida. A third mainline toll plaza was added to the East-West at Dean Road. The cost of this 6 mile extension was $105 million. The original eastern terminus became part of the Central Florida GreeneWay and the whole length of Florida State Road 4080 (essentially a ramp connecting southbound SR 417 to westbound SR 408 and a ramp connecting eastbound SR 408 to northbound SR 417. State Road 4080 has a SPUI interchange at its midpoint).

The Western Extension

This second extension to the East-West would allow motorists to use the expressway to drive onto Florida's Turnpike without leaving the system. SR 408 actually takes exit 1 to end at SR 50; the last bit to Florida's Turnpike is known as The Turnpike Connector and is maintained by Florida's Turnpike Enterprise. Construction began at the OOCEA's behest in 1989, and construction of the 6 mile extension and fourth toll plaza at Hiawassee Road was completed in late 1990 at a cost of $102 million. In the extension process, the original western terminus of SR 408 (a connection with SR 50 just west of SR 435) was "abandoned." The pavement was removed, but the right-of-way remains in the Florida State Roads system as Florida State Road 4081.

408 At Work

Currently the corridor is undergoing a $600 million widening project. As part of the project, two through lanes are being added along the entire length of the expressway from Hiawassee Road in the west to Goldenrod Road in the east. All the toll plazas are being reconstructed with express E-Pass lanes (the Holland West mainline toll plaza is being relocated from its current location), and the interchange with the Central Florida GreeneWay will be rebuilt. The construction is expected to be completed in 2010. Separate from the project is a new interchange with Interstate 4. It will begin construction in late 2005, and is being handled by the Florida Department of Transportation.

External links

- [http://www.expresswayauthority.com/ Orlando Orange County Expressway Authority]
- [http://www.dot.state.fl.us/turnpikepio/ Florida's Turnpike Enterprise]
- [http://www.dot.state.fl.us/ Florida Department of Transportation]
- [http://www.terraserverusa.com/image.aspx?T=4&S=12&LON=-81.26579&LAT=28.55216 Terraserver "Urban Areas" image of SR 4080] Category:Toll roads in Florida 408

2003

2003 (MMIII) is a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. It was designated the:
- International Year of Freshwater
- European Disability Year
- Blog Year See also Wikipedia's almanac of events for this year.

Events

January

- January 1 - Luíz Inácio Lula Da Silva becomes the 37th President of Brazil.
- January 1 - Pascal Couchepin becomes President of the Confederation in Switzerland.
- January 8 - US Airways flight 5481 crashes at Charlotte-Douglas International Airport in Charlotte, North Carolina killing all 21 people aboard.
- January 15 - The United States Supreme Court hands down its decision in Eldred v. Ashcroft allowing the extension of copyright terms in the U.S.
- January 24 - The new United States Department of Homeland Security officially begins operation.
- January 25 - Central Line train crashes into the tunnel wall at Chancery Lane station in London, injuring 34 people.
- January 25 - An international group of volunteers left London and headed for Baghdad to act as voluntary human shields, hoping to avert a U.S. invasion.
- January 30 - Iraq disarmament crisis: The leaders of Britain, Spain, Italy, Portugal, Hungary, Poland, Denmark, and the Czech Republic release a statement, the letter of the eight, demonstrating support for the United States' plans for an invasion of Iraq.

February

February
- February 1 - The Space Shuttle Columbia disintegrates over Texas upon reentry, killing all seven astronauts onboard.
- February 1 - In Northern Ireland, The Protestant UDA Belfast leader John Gregg is killed by a loyalist faction.
- February 3 - The worldwide movie premiere of Shanghai Knights was held at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood.
- February 5 - Iraq disarmament crisis: U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell addresses the UN Security Council on Iraq.
- February 9 - Cricket World Cup begins in South Africa.
- February 15 - Global protests against Iraq war - more than ten million people protest in over 600 cities worldwide, the largest war protest to take place before the war occurred.
- February 17 - Antwerp Diamond Center in Belgium opens its vaults after weekend and discovers that unknown burglars had stolen diamonds worth $100 million - largest diamond theft so far.
- February 26 - An American businessman is admitted to the Vietnam France Hospital in Hanoi, Vietnam. WHO doctor Carlo Urbani reports the unusual highly contagious disease to WHO. Both the businessman and Carlo Urbani die of SARS in March.

March

- March 1 - Iraq disarmament crisis: The United Arab Emirates calls for Iraqi president Saddam Hussein to step down to avoid war. The sentiment is later echoed by Bahrain and Kuwait
- March 1 - The Turkish parliment vetos the access of the U.S troops to airbases in Turkey in order to attack Iraq from the north. The Bush administration starts working on the B Plan, namely attacking Iraq from the south, through the Persian Gulf.
- March 1 - The Federal Law Enforcement Training Center, the United States Customs Service, and the United States Secret Service moves to the United States Department of Homeland Security
- March 1 - Boxer Roy Jones Jr. beats John Ruiz to become WBA champion
- March 1 - War on Terrorism: Authorities in Pakistan capture Khalid Shaikh Mohammed, the suspected mastermind of the September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attacks along with money man Mustafa Ahmed al-Hawsawi.
- March 1 - Ohio celebrates its bicentennial statehood.
- March 5 - The Supreme Court of the United States by a 5-4 margin upholds California's "three strikes and you're out" law.
- March 11 - Iraq disarmament crisis: Iraqi fighters threaten two U.S. U-2 surveillance planes, flying missions for U.N. weapons inspectors, forcing them to abort their mission and return to base.
- March 12 - Serbian Prime Minister Zoran Đinđić assassinated in Belgrade
- March 12 - WHO issues a global alert on SARS.
- March 12 - Iraq disarmament crisis: British prime minister Tony Blair proposes an amendment to the possible 18th U.N. resolution, which would call for Iraq to meet certain benchmarks to prove that it was disarming. The amendment is immediately rejected by France, who promises to veto any new resolution.
- March 13 - Human evolution: The journal Nature reports that 350,000-year-old upright-walking human footprints had been found in Italy
- March 15 - Hu Jintao becomes president of the People's Republic of China, replacing Jiang Zemin.
- March 16 - Iraq disarmament crisis: The leaders of the United States, Britain, Portugal, and Spain meet at a summit in the Azores Islands. U.S. President Bush calls Monday, March 17th, the "moment of Truth", meaning that the "coalition of the willing" would make its final effort to extract a resolution from the U.N. Security Council that would give Iraq an ultimatum to disarm immediately or to be disarmed by force.
- March 17 - Iraq disarmament crisis: U.S. President George W. Bush gives an ultimatum: Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein and his sons must either leave Iraq, or face military action at a time of the U.S.'s choosing
- March 19 - First American bombs dropped on Baghdad, Iraq. President Saddam Hussein and his sons do not comply with President Bush's 48 hour mandate demanding their exit from Iraq.
- March 20 - 2003 Iraq war: Land troops from United States, United Kingdom, Australia and Poland invade Iraq.
- March 22 - The United States and the United Kingdom begin their shock and awe campaign with a massive air strike on military targets in Baghdad.
- March 23 - Cricket World Cup ends as Australia wins over India in Centurion, South Africa.
- March 29 - WHO doctor Carlo Urbani, who first identified SARS, dies of the disease.
- March 30 - The Undertaker defeated the Big Show and A-Train in a handicap match, boosting his Wrestlemania record to 11-0.

April

April.]]
- April 3 - Passenger bus hits remote-controlled land mine in the Chechen capital, killing at least 8.
- April 9 - U.S. forces seize control of Baghdad, apparently ending the regime of Saddam Hussein.
- April 14 - Human Genome Project successfully completed with 99% of the human genome sequenced to 99.99% accuracy.
- April 17 - The Stevens Report concludes that members of the RUC and British Army cooperated with the UDA in the killings of Catholics in Northern Ireland
- April 21 - Retired U.S. Army General Jay Garner becomes Interim Civil Administrator of Iraq.
- April 30 - The last American owned vehicle frame manufacturer, [http://web.archive.org/web/20010623093543/www.immsp.com/index.htm Midland Steel Products] goes [http://www.newsnet5.com/news/2166844/detail.html out of business] after almost 110 years in business, laying off almost 250 people.

May

- May 1 - George W. Bush landed on the aircraft carrier USS Abraham Lincoln, in a Lockheed S-3 Viking, where he gave a speech announcing end of major combat in the Iraq war.
- May 2 - Monkeyman superhero hoax begins in Tunbridge Wells, Kent, UK
- May 3 - Old Man of the Mountain, rock formation in New Hampshire, crumbles after heavy rain
- May 4-10 - A major severe weather outbreak spawned more tornadoes than any week in U.S. history. 393 tornadoes were reported in 19 states.
- May 11 - Benvenuto Cellini's Saliera is stolen from the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna.
- May 12 - Suicide truck-bomb attack kills at least 60 at a government compound in northern Chechnya.
- May 12 - In Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, 26 people are killed in the Riyadh Compound Bombings.
- May 14 - Female suicide bomber blows up explosives strapped to her waist in crowd of thousands of Muslim pilgrims, killing at least 18 people in Chechnya.
- May 16 - In Casablanca, Morocco, 33 civilians are killed and more than 100 people are injured in the Casablanca terrorist attacks.
- May 19 - Pen Hadow becomes the first man to walk alone, without any outside help, from Canada to the North Pole
- May 23 - The birth of Dewey, the first cloned deer by scientists at Texas A&M University
- May 26 - A draft of the proposed European constitution is unveiled.
- May 28 - The birth of Prometea, the first cloned horse by Italian scientists.
- May 31 - Eric Rudolph, the suspected person to have carried out the Centennial Olympic Park bombing is captured in North Carolina behind a Save-A-Lot store.

June

- June 1 - The People's Republic of China begins filling the reservoir behind the massive Three Gorges Dam, raising the water level near the dam over 100 metres.
- June 4 - Martha Stewart and her broker are indicted for using privileged investment information and then obstructing a federal investigation. Stewart also resigned as chairperson and chief executive officer of Martha Stewart Living.
- June 5 - Female suicide bomber detonates bomb near a bus carrying soldiers and civilians to a military airfield in Mozdok, a major staging point for Russian troops in Chechnya, killing at least 16 people.
- June 15 - 2003 NBA Finals end. The San Antonio Spurs defeat the New Jersey Nets, 4 games to 2.
- June 22 - The largest hailstone ever recorded falls in Aurora, Nebraska, USA.
- June 23 - U.S. Supreme Court upholds affirmative action in university admissions in Grutter v. Bollinger
- June 26 - U.S. Supreme Court rules sodomy laws unconstitutional in Lawrence v. Texas

July

- July 1 - 500,000 Hong Kong people march to protest Hong Kong Basic Law Article 23, which redefined treason controversially.
- July 2 - International Olympic Committee session in Prague. Vancouver ,Canada is declared the Host City for the XXI Olympic Winter Games in 2010.
- July 5 - SARS is declared to be contained by WHO.
- July 5 - Double suicide bombing at a Moscow rock concert kills the female attackers and 15 other people.
- July 6 - Residents of Corsica reject a referendum for increased autonomy for the region from France by a very narrow margin.
- July 7 - Canon Jeffrey John, first would-be gay bishop in the Church of England, withdraws his acceptance of the post of The Bishop of Reading after discussions with the church leaders
- July 10 - Russian security agent dies in Moscow while trying to defuse a bomb a woman had tried to carry into a cafe on central Moscow's main street.
- July 14 - U.S. columnist Robert Novak publishes the name of Valerie Plame, blowing her cover as a CIA operative. CIA leak scandal begins.
- July 18 - Convention on the Future of Europe finishes its work and proposes the first European constitution
- July 18 - The body of Dr. David Kelly, a scientist at the Ministry of Defence, is found a few miles from his home, leading to the Hutton inquiry
- July 23 - Operation Warrior Sweep is the first major military deployment of the Afghan National Army
- July 24 - The Regional Assistance Mission to the Solomon Islands, Operation Helpem Fren, led by Australia, begins in the Solomon Islands
- July 30 - The last old-style Volkswagen Beetle rolls off its production line in Puebla, Puebla, Mexico.

August

- August 1 - Suicide bomber rams truck filled with explosives into a military hospital near Chechnya, killing 50 people, including Russian troops wounded in Chechnya.
- August 2 - The United Nations authorizes an international peacekeeping force for Liberia.
- August 10 - The highest temperature ever recorded in the UK - 38.1°C (100.6°F) at Gravesend in Kent and Kew Botanic Gardens, London. It is the first time the UK has recorded a temperature over 100 degrees Fahrenheit.
- August 11 - NATO takes over command of the peacekeeping force in Afghanistan, marking its first major operation outside Europe in its 54-year-history.
- August 11 - Jemaah Islamiah leader Riduan Isamuddin, better known as Hambali, is arrested in Bangkok, Thailand.
- August 14 - Widespread power outage affects northeast United States and Canada.
- August 14 - 6.4 Richter scale earthquake near the Greek Ionian island of Lefkada - 24 injured
- August 22 - 21 killed at the Brazilian rocket complex in Alcântara due to a premature ignition of a solid rocket booster.
- August 25 - 52 killed in two bomb blasts in Mumbai, India.
- August 27 - Perigee of Mars

September

- September 5 - Roller coaster accident at Disneyland injures 10 and kills one.
- September 10 - Swedish foreign minister Anna Lindh is stabbed in a Stockholm department store and dies the next day.
- September 14 - Sweden rejects adopting the Euro in a referendum. (Results.)
- September 14 - Estonia approves joining the European Union in a referendum.
- September 15 - ELN kidnaps 8 foreign tourists in the Ciudad Perdida - they demand a human rights investigation and release last of the hostages three months later
- September 16 - Two suicide bombers drive a truck laden with explosives into a government security services building near Chechnya, killing three people and injuring 25.
- September 27 - Smart 1 is launched.
- September 27 - The Uniterran Church was founded in Victor, NY
- September 28 - a power failure affected all of Italy except Sardinia, cutting service to more than 56 million people.
- September 29 - Hurricane Juan makes landfall at Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada as a category 2 storm. Two were killed directly and 5 indirectly.

October

October
- October 7 - 2003 California recall: Voters recall Governor Gray Davis from office and elect Arnold Schwarzenegger to succeed him.
- October 10 - Facing an investigation surrounding allegations of illegal drug use, American Right Wing radio host Rush Limbaugh publically admits that he is addicted to prescription pain killers and will seek treatment.
- October 14 - The Florida Marlins defeat the Chicago Cubs in Game 6 of Major League Baseball's National League Championship Series; the game is remembered for Cubs fan Steve Bartman interfering with a foul ball which could have helped Chicago win the game and the series.
- October 15 - China launches Shenzhou 5, their first manned space mission.
- October 16 - The Boston Red Sox lose to their hated rivals, the New York Yankees in Game 7 of Major League Baseball's American League Championship Series, blowing a three-run, eighth-inning lead.
- October 23 - Luis A. Ferre, the third Democratically Elected Governor of Puerto Rico, dies at age 99.
- October 24 - Concorde makes its last commercial flight, bringing the era of airliner supersonic travel to a close, at least for the time being.
- October 25 - The Florida Marlins defeat the New York Yankees 4 games to 2 to win the 2003 World Series, behind a complete-game shutout by ace pitcher, Josh Beckett.
- October 25 - Cedar Fire begins in San Diego County burning 280,000 acres (1,100 km²), 2,232 homes and killing 14
- October 31 - Mahathir Mohamad resigns as Prime Minister of Malaysia after 22 years in power.

November

- November 5 - Gary Ridgway, The "Green River Killer", confesses murders of 48 women
- November 9 - Lunar eclipse (the Americas, Europe, Africa, Central Asia)
- November 12 - Occupation of Iraq: In Nasiriya, Iraq, at least 23 people, among them the first Italian casualties of the 2003 Iraq war are killed in a suicide bomb attack on an Italian police base.
- November 15 - Two car bombs explode simultaneously in Istanbul, Turkey targeting two synagogues, killing at least 25 people and wounding more than 300; Al-Qaida claims responsibility.
- November 18 - US President George W. Bush makes a state visit to London in the midst of massive protests.
- November 18 - Goodridge v. Department of Public Health rules anti-same-sex marriage laws unconstitutional in Massachusetts
- November 20 - Several bombs explode in Istanbul, Turkey destroying the Turkish head office of HSBC Holdings and the British consulate.
- November 20 - Michael Jackson is arrested by police on charges of child molestation, a charge that can carry an 8 year jail term.
- November 22 - England wins the Rugby Union World Cup defeating Australia 20-17 after extra time.
- November 23 - Georgian Rose Revolution ends with overwhelming victory - president Eduard Shevardnadze resigns following weeks of mass protests over fraudulent elections.
- November 23 - Total solar eclipse (Antarctica)
- November 24 - The High Court in Glasgow imposes a minimum sentence of 27 years for Al Ali Mohmed Al Megrahi, the Libyan convicted of bombing Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland.

December

December
- December 1 - The use of hand-held mobile phones while driving is made illegal in the United Kingdom.
- December 1 - Boeing chairman and CEO Phil Condit resigns unexpectedly. He is replaced by Lewis Platt as non-executive chairman and Harry Stonecipher as president and CEO.
- December 5 - Suicide bombing on commuter train in southern Russia kills 44 people. President Vladimir Putin condemns attack as bid to destabilize the country two days before parliamentary elections.
- December 7 - Parliamentary election in Russia.
- December 9 - Female suicide bomber blows herself up outside Moscow's National Hotel, across from the Kremlin and Red Square, killing five bystanders.
- December 12 - Paul Martin becomes the 21st Prime Minister of Canada
- December 12 - Olympic Airlines, Greece's new flag carrier is launched.
- December 13 - Saddam Hussein, former President of Iraq, is captured in Tikrit by the U.S. 4th Infantry Division.
- December 16 - The United Kingdom announces plans to build a new runway at Stansted Airport in Essex and a short-haul runway at Heathrow Airport sparking anger from environmental groups.
- December 17 - The film The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King released, effectively completing the Lord of the Rings Trilogy directed by Peter Jackson.
- December 18 - The Soham Murder Trial ends at the Old Bailey in London with Ian Huntley found guilty of two counts of murder. His girlfriend, Maxine Carr is found guilty of perverting the course of justice.
- December 20 - Libya admits that it was building a nuclear bomb.
- December 22 - An earthquake shakes up California, killing two people.
- December 22 - Parmalat is first accused of falsifying accounts to the tune of USD $5 billion, later admitted by founder Calisto Tanzi; observers call it "Europe's Enron".
- December 24 - A BSE outbreak in Washington State is announced. Several countries including Brazil, Australia and Taiwan place a ban on the import of beef from the United States of America.
- December 24 - At the request of the US Embassy in Paris, the French Government orders Air France to cancel several flights between France and the US in response to terrorist concerns.
- December 24 - The Spanish police thwarts an attempt by ETA to detonate 50 kg of explosives at 3:55 PM on Christmas Eve inside Madrid's busy Chamartín Station.
- December 25 - Queen Elizabeth II broadcasts a Christmas message to the British Commonwealth paying tribute to British troops in Iraq. Pope John Paul II's Christmas message calls for peace in the Middle East.
- December 25 - Beagle 2 is scheduled to land on Mars, but nothing is heard from the lander.
- December 25 - The President Pervez Musharraf of Pakistan, escapes the second assassination attempt in two weeks.
- December 26 - A massive earthquake devastates southeastern Iran. Over 40,000 people are reported to have been killed in the city of Bam.
- December 31 - The world's largest Hogmanay party in the Scottish capital Edinburgh is cancelled twenty minutes before midnight due to bad weather.

Births

- April 29 - Maud Angelica Behn, daughter of Ari Behn and Princess Märtha Louise of Norway
- August 24 - Alexandre Coste, son of Albert II, Prince of Monaco
- November 8 - Lady Louise Windsor, daughter of Earl and Countess of Wessex
- December 7 - Princess Catharina-Amalia of the Netherlands, daughter of Prince Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands

Deaths

For more deaths, see: Deaths in 2003

January

- January 3 - Sid Gillman, American football coach (b. 1911)
- January 4 - Conrad Hall, Tahitian-born cinematographer (b. 1926)
- January 4 - Yfrah Neaman, Lebanese-born violinist (b. 1923)
- January 8 - Ron Goodwin, English composer and conductor (b. 1925)
- January 11 - Maurice Pialat, French actor and director (b. 1925)
- January 11 - Richard Simmons, American actor (b. 1913)
- January 12 - Leopoldo Galtieri, Argentine dictator (b. 1926)
- January 12 - Maurice Gibb, Australian musician (Bee Gees) (b. 1949)
- January 15 - Doris Fisher, American singer and songwriter (b. 1915)
- January 17 - Richard Crenna, American actor (b. 1926)
- January 20 - Al Hirschfeld, American cartoonist (b. 1903)
- January 23 - Nell Carter, American singer and actress (b. 1948)
- January 24 - Gianni Agnelli, Italian auto executive (b. 1921)
- January 26 - Valeriy Brumel, Russian athlete (b. 1942)
- January 26 - Hugh Trevor-Roper, Baron Dacre of Glanton, English historian (b. 1917)
- January 29 - Frank Moss, U.S. Senator from Utah (b. 1911)

February

- February 1 - Crew of the Space Shuttle Columbia
- Michael P. Anderson (b. 1959)
- David M. Brown (b. 1956)
- Kalpana Chawla (b. 1961)
- Laurel Clark (b. 1961)
- Rick Husband (b. 1957)
- William McCool (b. 1961)
- Ilan Ramon (b. 1954)
- February 2 - Lou Harrison, American composer (b. 1917)
- February 10 - Edgar de Evia, American photographer (b. 1910)
- February 10 - Ron Ziegler, Richard Nixon's White House Press Secretary (b. 1939)
- February 19 - Johnny PayCheck, American singer (b. 1938)
- February 20 - Maurice Blanchot, French philosopher and writer (b. 1907)
- February 20 - Orville Freeman, American politician (b. 1918)
- February 27 - Fred Rogers, American television host (b. 1928)
- February 28 - Fidel Sánchez Hernández, President of El Salvador (heart attack) (b. 1917)

March

- March 2 - Hank Ballard, American musician (b. 1927)
- March 9 - Bernard Dowiyogo, President of Nauru (diabetes) (b. 1946)
- March 12 - Zoran Đinđić, Prime Minister of Serbia (assassinated) (b. 1952)
- March 12 - Lynne Thigpen, American actress (b.1948)
- March 26 - Daniel Patrick Moynihan, U.S. Senator from New York (b. 1926)
- March 29 - Carlo Urbani, Italian physician (SARS) (b. 1956)

April

- April 1 - Leslie Cheung, Hong Kong singer and actor (b.1961)
- April 7 - Cecile de Brunhoff, French storyteller (b. 1903)
- April 11 - Cecil Howard Green, British-born geophysicist and businessman (b. 1900)
- April 17 - Robert Atkins, American nutritionist (b. 1930)
- April 17 - Paul Getty, American-born philanthropist (b. 1932)
- April 17 - Earl King, American musician (b. 1934)
- April 20 - Ruth Hale, American playwright and actress (b. 1908)
- April 20 - Bernard Katz, German-born biophysicist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1911)
- April 21 - Nina Simone, American singer (b. 1933)
- April 23 - Fernand Fonssagrives, French photographer (b. 1910)
- April 26 - Peter Stone, American writer (b. 1930)
- April 30 - Wim van Est, Dutch cyclist (b. 1923)

May

- May 3 - Suzy Parker, American actress (b. 1932)
- May 9 - Russell B. Long, U.S. Senator from Louisiana (b. 1933)
- May 12 - Sadruddhin Aga Khan, French UN High Commissioner for Refugees (b. 1933)
- May 14 - Wendy Hiller, English actress (b. 1912)
- May 14 - Robert Stack, American actor (b. 1919)
- May 15 - June Carter Cash, American singer (b. 1929)
- May 15 - Rik Van Steenbergen, Belgian cyclist (b. 1924)
- May 26 - Kathleen Winsor, American writer (b. 1919)
- May 27 - Luciano Berio, Italian composer (b. 1925)
- May 28 - Ilya Prigogine, Russian-born physicist and chemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (b. 1917)
- May 28 - Martha Scott, American actress (b. 1912)

June

- June 2 - Burke Marshall, American lawyer and politician (b. 1922)
- June 10 - Donald Regan, U.S. Treasury Secretary (b. 1918)
- June 10 - Bernard Williams, English philosopher (b. 1929)
- June 11 - David Brinkley, American television reporter (b. 1920)
- June 12 - Gregory Peck, American actor (b. 1916)
- June 15 - Hume Cronyn, Canadian act

Landing

Landing is the last part of a flight, where a flying animal or aircraft returns to the ground. A similar process is correctly called alighting when returning to water. Hitting the ground too hard is prevented by wings (including rotor wings), a parachute or rockets or a vertically directed jet engine; in the case of a balloon the buoyancy is slightly decreased for a soft landing. Aircraft usually land at an airport on a runway or helicopter landing pad. helicopter landing pad For aircraft or birds, landing is generally accomplished by trading airspeed for lift. The first phase is the flare, where the rate of descent will be reduced by transitioning to a stall attitude. After slowing down, the plane changes pitch into the landing attitude shortly before touching down. In a perfect touchdown, assuming there is no crosswind, contact with the ground is made just as the forward speed is reduced to the point where there is no longer sufficient lift to remain aloft. If there is a crosswind, techniques such as a crab landing or a slip landing are used to land the plane safely. During landing, the ground effect becomes significant for aircraft. This tends to make the aircraft "keep flying" when it ordinarly would not (at higher altitudes) and therefore to extend the distance required to land. ground effect and flaps.]] Large jet transport aircraft land differently than described above. If the pilot waited for the aircraft to stall too much runway length would be used so the flare just reduces the rate of descent at touchdown and the aircraft is flown onto the runway. Usually spoilers (Sometimes called "Lift Dumpers") are immediately deployed to dramatically reduce the lift and transfer the aircraft's weight to its wheels, where mechanical braking can take effect. To land on an aircraft carrier, an aircraft (moving at, perhaps, 150 mph (240 km/h)) is equipped with tailhooks to engage one of up to four arresting cables stretched across the deck, stopping the aircraft within 320 feet (100 m) after engaging one of the cables. To assist safe landings, the carrier will usually steam directly into wind at full speed, thus reducing aircraft's speed relative to the carrier deck, and eliminating any crosswind.

Runway

A runway is a strip of land on an airport, on which aircraft can take off and land. Runways may be a prepared surface, (often asphalt or concrete) or an unprepared surface (grass, dirt, gravel).

Description

Large airports may have several runways. They are identified by the magnetic direction in which they point, rounding to the nearest ten degrees. So, for example, a runway identified with "36" would stand for a 360 degrees direction (i.e. North), "09" for 94 degrees, and "17" for 168 degrees. Each runway can be used in two directions, and hence has two numbers. Since the directions are necessarily opposite, the number of a runway can always be found by adding or subtracting 18 from the opposite runway number (whichever yields a positive number less than 37). For example runway 10 is called runway 28 when used in the opposite direction. If in an airport there is more than one runway pointing in the same direction, the runways are identified by the letters L, C and R, for Left, Center and Right, behind the number. Such an example would be runways "15L", "15C" and "15R". In speech runways are always referred to by saying each digit of the number, followed by 'Left', 'Right' or 'Center' if necessary. The first example above would be referred to as "Runway One Five Left". In many cases, at large airports where there are more than three parallel runways, one or more of the runway numbers is arbitrarily altered by 10 degrees, so as to avoid the need for potentially confusing terms such as "15 left center." For fixed wing aircraft it as advantageous to perform take-offs and landings into the wind to achieve the maximum lift. Airports usually have several runways, running in different directions, so that this can be done for different wind directions.

Runway Lighting

At bigger airports, runways use a standard lighting system to allow night landings. Seen from a landing plane, the runway starts with a strip of green lights at the near end and stops with a strip of red lights at the far end. The runway itself is framed with white elevated edge lights, as opposed to the blue elevated edge lights of a taxiway. The centerline is often indicated by white lights, which may be coded alternately white and yellow and then purely yellow nearing the far end of the runway. Furthermore, many runways equipped with instrument landing systems feature touchdown zone lighting. This consists of rows of white light bars on either side of the centerline over the first 30 feet of the runway. The sides of the runway are marked by lines of bright white lights. Larger runways may have another line of dimmer white lights running down the centerline. According to Transport Canada's regulations, the runway-edge lights must be visible for at least 2 miles.
- The lights must be arranged such that:
- the minimum distance between lines is 75 feet, and maximum is 200 feet;
- the maximum distance between lights within each line is 200 feet;
- the minimum length of parallel lines is 1400 feet;
- the minimum number of lights in the line is 8.

Runway markings

There are various runway markings and signs on any given runway. Larger runways have a distance remaining sign (black box with white numbers). This sign uses a single number to indicate the thousands of feet remaining, so 7 will indicate 7,000 feet remaining. The runway threshold is marked by a line of green lights. Image:Runway diagram.jpg Some airports/airfields (particularly uncontrolled ones) are equipped with Pilot Controlled Lighting, so that pilots can temporarily turn on the lights when they need them. This avoids the need for automatic systems or staff to turn the lights on at night or in other low visibility situations. This also avoids the costs of having hundreds of lights on for extended periods.

Active runway

An active runway is the runway at an airport that is in current use for all takeoffs and landings. Since takeoffs and landings are always done as close as "into the wind" as possible, wind direction determines the active runway (or just the active in aviation slang). Barring elevation constraints, runways are bidirectional. For example, a west-east runway will be both "Runway 27" and "Runway 9" (derived from the compass heading divided by ten) depending on direction. If the wind is blowing from the west, the active runway will be Runway 27, as 270° points west.

Longest runways

Some of the longest runways include:
- Edwards Air Force Base, California, USA () - 11,905 m (39,060 ft) dirt
- Nellis Air Force Base (Clark County, Nevada) () - 5506 m (18,067 ft)¹ asphalt/concrete
- Zhukovsky Aerodrome, Moscow, Russia () - 5403 m (17,726 ft) concrete
- Jih Ko Tse, China () - 5000 m (16,404 ft) concrete
- Embraer Gaviao Peixoto, Brazil () - 4967 m (16,295 ft) asphalt
- Upington, South Africa () - 4900 m (16,076 ft) asphalt
- Denver International Airport, Colorado, USA () - 4877 m (16,000 ft) concrete
- Edwards Air Force Base, California, USA () - 4576 m (15,013 ft) concrete
- Qamdo Bangda, China (Tibet) () - 4200 m (13,779 ft) concrete² ¹ Marked as "abandoned" on satellite imagery. Total pavement length including overruns is 24,085 ft. The facility's sole active runway has a length of 3651 m (11,980 ft). ² Listed here as Chinese sources have contributed to misperceptions that it is the world's longest runway. It is billed as the world's highest airport at 4300 m (14,707 ft).

Airport

Attributes

Airport structures

International airports

Shops and food services

Cargo and freight services

Support services

History and development

Airport designation and naming

Airport security

Airport operations

Air traffic control

Traffic pattern

Navigational aids

Guidance signs

Operational guidance signs

Mandatory instruction signs

Lighting

Wind indicators

Safety management

Environmental concerns

Military Airbase

Aircraft Carriers

Airports in Entertainment

Airport Directories

External links

Orlando International Airport

History

Structure and function

Airside 1 (gates 1-29)

Airside 2 (gates 100-129)

Airside 3 (gates 30-59)

Airside 4 (gates 60-99)

External links

- [http://www.orlandoairports.net/ Orlando Airports homepage]
- Airport Category:Airports in Florida ja:オーランド国際空港

August 2004

__NOTOC__ 2004 : January - February - March - April - May - June - July - August - September - October - November - December
See also: August 2004 in sports

August 31, 2004

- The WTO authorizes the imposition of sanctions against the United States for persistent violation of global trade laws. [http://www.nytimes.com/2004/09/01/business/worldbusiness/01trade.html (NYT)]
- A female suicide bomber kills ten and injures 51 others near a subway station in Moscow. [http://www.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/europe/08/31/russia.carblast/index.html (CNN)] [http://www.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=topNews&storyID=6116156 (Reuters)] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3615970.stm (BBC)]
- Despite demands from Iraqi resistance Islamist militant elements threatening to kill two French hostages, France upholds its law on secularity and conspicuous religious symbols in schools, specifically its ban on Muslim hijabs. [http://abcnews.go.com/wire/World/ap20040830_532.html (ABC News)][http://www.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=worldNews&storyID=6106700 (Reuters)]
- In Iraq, the radical Islamist group, Army of Ansar al-Sunna, kill 12 Nepali civilians employed as cooks and cleaners, stating "We have carried out the sentence of God against 12 Nepalis who came from their country to fight the Muslims and to serve the Jews and the Christians ... believing in Buddha as their God" [http://www.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=worldNews&storyID=6113254§ion=news (Reuters)]
- Repeated attacks on pipelines linked to southern oil fields have significantly hampered oil exports from Iraq. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A46105-2004Aug30.html (Washington Post)][http://www.themoscowtimes.com/stories/2004/08/31/258.html (Moscow Times)]
- Former Yugoslav President Slobodan Milošević, a Belgrade Law School graduate, opens his defence at the trial which accuses him of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes for his alleged role in the conflicts in which tens of thousands were killed. He maintains the charges are 'unscrupulous lies'. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3613020.stm (BBC News)] [http://www.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=worldNews&storyID=6113423§ion=news (Reuters)]
- Palestinian suicide bombers kill at least 16 Israelis and wound more than 91 others aboard two city buses in Beer Sheva, Israel in the first successful Palestinian suicide bombings since March 14, 2004, with Hamas claiming responsibility. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3614614.stm (BBC)] [http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=471713 (Haaretz)]
- Afghan police say a United States bombing raid killed at least six civilians in the eastern province of Kunar. [http://www.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=worldNews&storyID=6113130 (Reuters)] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3613702.stm (BBC)]
- 2004 Atlantic hurricane season: Hurricane Frances affects the British Virgin Islands, the United States Virgin Islands and the northern-east part of Puerto Rico. [http://www.startribune.com/stories/484/4957323.html (AP/The Star Tribune)]
- California Governor and former Hollywood star Arnold Schwarzenegger extols the United States as a greater source of good in the world than the UN: "If you believe this country, not the United Nations, is the best hope of democracy in the world, then you are a Republican," he shouts, at the Republican National Convention. [http://www.washtimes.com/national/20040901-123956-8757r.htm (Washington Times)] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3616458.stm (BBC)]
- Following a dramatic intra-party campaign, Betty Castor and Mel Martinez win primary elections in Florida for the U.S. Senate election, 2004. The seat is the most heavily contested in the U.S. Congress, with over $30 million budgeted among twelve candidates' campaigns. [http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/files/elections/2004/by_state/FL_Page_0831.html?SITE=FLBRAELN&SECTION=POLITICS (AP/Bradenton Herald)]
- The two smallest extrasolar planets ever discovered are announced: one orbiting 55 Cancri in the constellation Cancer, and another orbiting Gliese 436 in the constellation Leo. They are both around the size of Neptune. [http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20040831.wplanet20831a/BNStory/specialScienceandHealth/ (Globe and Mail)]

August 30, 2004

- Election dispute in Chechnya: After leading rival Malik Saidullayev was disqualified on a technicality. Putin-supported Alu Alkhanov wins in a landslide. US and EU dispute results. [http://www.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=worldNews&storyID=6096967 (Reuters)] [http://www.reuters.co.uk/newsPackageArticle.jhtml?type=worldNews&storyID=574493§ion=news (Reuters)] [http://www.nytimes.com/2004/08/30/international/europe/30CND-CHEC.html (NYT)]
- U.S. presidential campaign: The Republican National Convention begins in New York City. Massive protests are expected. [http://www.cnn.com/2004/ALLPOLITICS/08/30/gop.main/index.html (CNN)]
- Two amateur French Egyptologists claim to have discovered, using radar, a previously unknown corridor inside the Great Pyramid of Khufu. They believe the corridor would lead directly to Khufu's burial chamber, a room which – if it exists – is unlikely to have been accessed since the burial and may still contain the king's remains. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,3604,1293377,00.html (The Guardian)] [http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200408/s1188387.htm (AustBC)]
- The Russian Federal Security Service (FSB) confirms that two Russian "airplanes were blown up as a result of a terrorist attack" that killed 90 people on August 24, 2004. [http://www.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=worldNews&storyID=6103561 (Reuters)]
- 2004 Atlantic hurricane season:
- Tropical Storm Gaston douses Richmond, Virginia with up to 14 inches of rain, causing widespread flooding. Governor Mark Warner declares a state of emergency in Central Virginia. [http://abcnews.go.com/wire/US/ap20040831_147.html (ABCNEWS)]
- Category 3 Hurricane Frances looms over Puerto Rico. [http://www.usatoday.com/weather/hurricane/2004-08-30-frances-pm_x.htm (USA Today)]
- President Chen Shui-bian cancels the annual Han Kuang live-fire exercises previously schedule for September 9 as a goodwill gesture to the mainland after the People's Republic of China reportedly halted its military drills at Dongshan island on the Taiwan Strait. [http://www.voanews.com/article.cfm?objectID=BE355AD7-4385-476C-AB8092F5FE1395F0&title=Taiwan%20Cancels%20Military%20Exercise%20as%20%27Goodwill%27%20Gesture%20to%20China&catOID=45C9C78B-88AD-11D4-A57200A0CC5EE46C&categoryname=Asia%20Pacific (VOA)] [http://edition.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/asiapcf/08/30/china.taiwan.reut/index.html (CNN)]

August 29, 2004

- 2004 Atlantic hurricane season: Tropical Storm Gaston makes landfall at Bulls Bay, South Carolina with near hurricane strength 70 mph winds. [http://www.cnn.com/2004/WEATHER/08/29/weather.tropical.ap/index.html (CNN)]
- An explosion at a school in southern Afghanistan has killed at least 10 people, many of them children, the US military has said. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/3609638.stm (BBC)]
- Australian Prime Minister John Howard announces that the 2004 Australian federal election will take place on October 9, 2004. [http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/s1187484.htm (ABC Au)]
- The 2004 Summer Olympics are closed by IOC President Jacques Rogge. [http://www.reuters.co.uk/newsPackageArticle.jhtml?type=topNews&storyID=573544§ion=news (Reuters)]
- More than 400,000 demonstrators march in New York City, protesting U.S. President George W. Bush and the policies of the Republican Party on the eve of the 2004 Republican National Convention. Republican delegates and politicians, including Vice President Dick Cheney, also begin to arrive in the city. [http://news.scotsman.com/latest.cfm?id=3428265 (The Scotsman)] [http://www.chron.com/cs/CDA/ssistory.mpl/nation/2767162 (Houston Chronicle)] [http://www.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=politicsNews&storyID=6096968 (Reuters)] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/3605250.stm (BBC)]
- The Lebanese Cabinet, under Syrian pressure and despite widespread opposition, votes to modify the constitution to allow President Émile Lahoud a second term in office. Patriarch Sfeir states "we have completely lost sovereignty of our territory and our independence and freedom in choosing our rulers and deciding our own affairs." [http://www.nytimes.com/2004/08/29/international/middleeast/29beirut.html (NYT)]
- The British Royal Society, with 68 other organizations, urges the UN to ban reproductive but not therapeutic use of the technology in response to a US bid to ban human cloning altogether. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/3609992.stm (BBC)]

August 28, 2004

- In a video circulating on the Internet, former Texas lieutenant governor Ben F. Barnes apologizes for his role in getting current United States President George W. Bush into the Texas Air National Guard in 1968. [http://www.suntimes.com/output/elect/cst-nws-bside29.html (Chicago Sun-Times)]
- Free and Open Source Software advocacy: TheOpenCD, the Free Software Foundation and the Open Source Initiative celebrate the first annual Software Freedom Day.
- A precious icon is returned to the Kremlin's Cathedral of the Assumption by a Roman Catholic Cardinal as a goodwill gesture from the Pope to the Russian Orthodox Church. The image is an 18th century copy of the Virgin of Kazan, one of Russia's most sacred images. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3605996.stm (BBC)]

August 27, 2004

- Between 5,000 and 6,000 participants take part in the Critical Mass bicyclist ride as part of the 2004 Republican National Convention protest activity. The monthly NYC Critical Mass ride usually attracts about 1500 riders. Police eventually arrested 264 people for deliberately blockading roads during the event. This is the first time the NYPD made any significant arrests of Critical Mass participants. [http://nyc.indymedia.org/feature/display/104892/index.php (NYC-IMC)]
- Interbrew completes its merger with Ambev. Both were among the top five largest breweries in the world, and together they will become the largest, when measured by volume. The merged company will be called InBev [http://quote.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10000086&sid=a_CexO2sxkiw&refer=latin_america (Bloomberg)]
- The FBI has launched a full espionage investigation into Larry Franklin after obtaining evidence pointing to a high-ranking spy in the Pentagon. According to [http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/08/27/eveningnews/main639143.shtml CBS News], the spy has been giving classified secrets to Israel which could compromise U.S. national security. Israel denies the charges.
- Following the intervention of Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani, an agreement is found to end the standoff in Najaf. Although the terms are not clear, the deal requires both the al-Sadr militia and U.S. troops to leave the city, to be replaced by the police interim government. Responsibility for the Imam Ali Mosque goes to Sistani. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/3603730.stm (BBC)] This resolution occurs two days before the one year anniversary of the assassination of Sayed Mohammed Baqir al-Hakim, a prominent Shi'ite cleric from Najaf.
- The Russian Federal Security Service announces that traces of the explosive hexogen have been found in the wreckage of the two Russia airliners which crashed on August 24, 2004. The Islamic group "the Islambouli Brigades" claims responsibility. [http://ap.washingtontimes.com/dynamic/stories/R/RUSSIA_PLANE_CRASH?SITE=DCTMS&SECTION=HOME (AP)]
- Enzo Baldoni, an Italian journalist kidnapped by Islamic militants in Iraq, is killed by his kidnappers. [http://www.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=worldNews&storyID=6090284&pageNumber=2 (Reuters)]
- The Interior Minister of France announces that the number of anti-Semitic attacks in France this year is more than double that of the same period last year. [http://www.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=worldNews&storyID=6090896§ion=news (Reuters)]

August 26, 2004

- Chile's Supreme Court strips former military ruler Augusto Pinochet of his immunity from prosecution, allowing him to be prosecuted for alleged crimes including involvement in murder and torture. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/3602630.stm (BBC)]
- Najaf standoff
- Twenty-five people are killed and 100 wounded during a mortar attack on the main mosque in the Iraqi city of Kufa. 20 Shiite marchers in Kufa are killed and 70 wounded by gunfire. The identity of the attackers is unknown, reportedly though a source of gunfire was near an Iraqi National Guard base. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/3600384.stm (BBC)] [http://www.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=worldNews&storyID=6078307 (Reuters)] [http://www.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/meast/08/26/iraq.main/index.html (CNN)][http://www.albawaba.com/news/index.php3?sid=283760&lang=e&dir=news (Albawaba)]
- Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani begins negotiations with Shiite cleric Moqtada al-Sadr in a bid to end the fighting in Najaf for three weeks. Sistani tells thousands of Iraqis heading to the holy city to wait on the outskirts of Najaf. [http://www.khaleejtimes.com/DisplayArticle.asp?xfile=data/focusoniraq/2004/August/focusoniraq_August292.xml§ion=focusoniraq (khaleejtimes)] Ayatollah Sistani calls a pause in fighting, telling protesters to stay home, and urging all forces to withdraw. US and Iraqi troops suspend attacks for 24 hours. [http://www.csmonitor.com/2004/0827/p01s01-woiq.html (CSMonitor)] [http://www.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=topNews&storyID=6082585 (Reuters)]
- Abu Hamza al-Masri, a well known Muslim cleric currently residing in the United Kingdom, is arrested under the Terrorism Act 2000 which covers the "commission, preparation or instigation of acts of terrorism". [http://www.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=worldNews&storyID=6081021 (Reuters)]

August 25, 2004

- Astronomers announce the discovery of a third extrasolar planet orbiting Mu Arae. The planet may be the first rocky world detected orbiting a star other than the Sun.
- The Bank of Canada rolls out a new $20 bill, the latest piece of paper money to be given new anti-counterfeiting technology and a facelift. [http://www.cbc.ca/stories/2004/08/25/newtwentybill_040825 (CBC)]
- Sir Mark Thatcher, son of former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, is arrested at his home in Cape Town, South Africa, on charges related to his alleged involvement in an attempted coup in Equatorial Guinea. He is later released on bail, and is to return to court on November 25. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3599510.stm (BBC)] Meanwhile, his "distressed" mother returns from holiday in the US. [http://politics.guardian.co.uk/news/story/0,9174,1292342,00.html (Guardian/Reuters)] [http://www.wavy.com/Global/story.asp?S=2227847 (AP)]
- Welsh nationalist MP Adam Price announces his intention to impeach Prime Minister Tony Blair, with the support of other Welsh and Scottish nationalist MPs. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/3600438.stm (BBC)] [http://icwales.icnetwork.co.uk/0100news/newspolitics/tm_objectid=14572398&method=full&siteid=50082&headline=-blair-to-be-impeached-over-iraq-war-by-plaid-cymru-mp-name_page.html (icWales)]
- Police in Toronto shoot and kill a man holding a woman hostage outside Union Station. [http://www.cbc.ca/story/canada/national/2004/08/25/hostage_union040825.html (CBC)] [http://www.thestar.com/NASApp/cs/ContentServer?pagename=thestar/Layout/Article_Type1&c=Article&cid=1093428111014&call_pageid=968332188492&col=968793972154 Timeline (Toronto Star)]
- Machine guns and explosives are found in a van in Montreal. Police look for links to organized crime. [http://www.thestar.com/NASApp/cs/ContentServer?pagename=thestar/Layout/Article_Type1&c=Article&cid=1093428247186&call_pageid=968332188854&col=968705899037 (Toronto Star)]

August 24, 2004

- The Trans-Atlantic Exoplanet Survey (TrES) announces its first discovery of an extrasolar planet using an array of small amateur-astronomy-sized telescopes. [http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0408421 (ArXiv paper)] [http://www.cfa.harvard.edu/press/pr0427.html (Press release)]
- Two Russian jets, Volga-AviaExpress Flight 1303 and Siberia Airlines Flight 1047, crash south of Moscow within minutes of each other. Eyewitnesses report the flight 1303 exploded in mid-air. Both airliners took off from Domodedovo International Airport. The planes were carrying 78 passengers and 16 crew in total. [http://www.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/europe/08/24/russia.planecrash/index.html (CNN)] [http://www.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=worldNews&storyID=6060212 (Reuters)][http://aolsvc.news.aol.com/news/article.adp?id=20040824182309990001 (AOL NEWS)]
- Japan issues a deportation order against former world chess champion Bobby Fischer. [http://au.news.yahoo.com/040824/21/qgwb.html (Reuters)]
- Iran has reiterated that it will retaliate if Israel carries out a preemptive strike against its nuclear program. [http://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2004/8/3715C237-1615-4798-80AE-F489B0B6267C.html (Radio Free Europe)]
- The U.S. Food and Drug Administration issues a warning to physicians regarding dangerous adverse reactions to the drug Remicade, which is used to treat rheumatoid arthritis and Crohn's Disease. Doctors are warned to screen patients for blood irregularities and to closely monitor blood cell counts. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/worldlatest/story/0,1280,-4448660,00.html (The Guardian)]
- High-level American military leaders are said to be at least partly responsible for abuses of Iraqi prisoners at Abu Ghraib prison in a report written by an investigative panel headed by James Schlesinger. [http://www.thestar.com/NASApp/cs/ContentServer?pagename=thestar/Layout/Article_Type1&c=Article&cid=1093344465028&call_pageid=968256289824&col=968705899037 (Toronto Star)]
- French police launch a manhunt as Cesare Battisti, a wanted left-wing extremist who was facing extradition from France to Italy, goes missing. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3593578.stm (BBC)]
- Two Iraqi interim government ministers escape suicide attacks in Baghdad. At least four bodyguards are killed. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3593066.stm (BBC)]
- Two new justices of the Supreme Court of Canada are named by Justice Minister Irwin Cotler: Louise Charron and Rosalie Abella. They will undergo a new parliamentary screening process, though their appointment cannot be blocked. [http://www.cbc.ca/story/canada/national/2004/08/24/cotlersupreme040824.html (CBC)]

August 23, 2004

- Politics of Taiwan: The Legislative Yuan proposes a package of amendments by 217-1 that includes halving the number of legislators and abolishing the National Assembly. [http://www.etaiwannews.com/Taiwan/2004/08/24/1093312475.htm (Taiwan News)] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3589714.stm (BBC)]
- Mexican officials announce the arrest in Mexicali of Gilberto Higuera Guerrero, a suspected drug kingpin with ties to the Arellano Félix gang. Higuera is accused of smuggling narcotics into the U.S. from Mexico, and the U.S. State Department has offered a $2m reward for Higuera's capture. [http://www.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/americas/08/23/drug.arrest.ap/index.html (CNN)]
- U.S. marines and Shi'ite militiamen fight several fierce battles around the Imam Ali Mosque, a shrine in Najaf, Iraq in some of the heaviest fighting since the 20-day-old rebellion erupted. [http://www.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml;jsessionid=F4JU1ZDM4US2WCRBAEKSFEY?type=topNews&storyID=6046370 (Reuters)]
- A Ukrainian-Canadian soldier's Victoria Cross, which vanished from the Canadian War Museum about 30 years ago, will be back on public display Monday. Cpl. Filip Konowal received The Commonwealth's highest decoration for valour for his bravery in the battle for Hill 70 in France in 1917. [http://winnipeg.cbc.ca/regional/servlet/View?filename=mb_konowal20040823 (CBC)] [http://www.canada.com/components/printstory/printstory4.aspx?id=58911cbc-32b3-40fa-ad34-23b787a60285 (National Post)] [http://www.thestar.com/NASApp/cs/ContentServer?pagename=thestar/Layout/Article_PrintFriendly&c=Article&cid=1093299011601&call_pageid=968332188492 (Toronto Star)]
- El Vocero reports that 50 out of 129 illegal immigrants travelling by boat from the Dominican Republic to Puerto Rico have been massacred by the ship's captains.[http://vocero.com/noticia.asp?n=46104&d=8/23/2004 (El Vocero, in Spanish)]

August 22, 2004

- US journalist Micah Garen, who was kidnapped in Iraq more than a week ago, is released in the southern city of Nasiriyah. [http://www.comcast.net/News/INTERNATIONAL//XML/1107_AP_Online_Regional___Middle_East/841acf47-d4cb-4249-b479-c2839f6688ed.html (Comcast)]
- Singapore's new Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong, hoping to quell Beijing's fury over his July 10-12 visit to Taiwan, says that he will not support the island if the People's Republic of China attacks it in retaliation for any push for Taiwan independence. [http://in.news.yahoo.com/040822/137/2fmou.html (Yahoo! India)]
- A Venezuelan military plane crashes as it approaches its base in the central industrial state of Aragua, killing all 25 on board. [http://quote.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10000086&sid=aXysZLp5Comc&refer=latin_america (Bloomberg)]
- Arsonists raze a Jewish community centre in Paris, leaving behind menacing graffiti including swastikas and the words "Jews get out." [http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/1093202162831_29/?hub=TopStories (CTV)]
- A Bangladeshi mob torches a passenger train, a day after a grenade attack on a political rally killed 19 people and injured hundreds. [http://www.cbc.ca/story/world/national/2004/08/22/bangladesh_040822.html (CBC News)]
- Armed robbers steal the Edvard Munch paintings The Scream and Madonna from the Munch Museum in Oslo. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3588282.stm (BBC)] [http://www.aftenposten.no/english/local/article853863.ece (Aftenposten)]

August 21, 2004

- The West Nile virus is now responsible for six deaths in California, with the number of people infected with the virus at 249. [http://www.healthtalk.ca/west_nile_california_08212004_3743.php (HealthTalk.ca)]
- Mexico, Honduras and Panama, among many other countries, are put on high alert about a possible Al-Qaida attack in Latin America. [http://www.columbiatribune.com/2004/Aug/20040823News016.asp (Columbia Daily Tribune)] [http://www.tucsoncitizen.com/index.php?page=national&story_id=082304a1_terror_latino (Tucson Citizen)]
- Grenade attack on Bangladesh Awamee League, the bigest political party in this country. Party precident Sheikh Hasina was injured. Total 22 were Died, more than were 1000 injured. This is the 2nd Black day for Bangladesh after 15 August 1975.

August 20, 2004

- US Airways, struggling to avoid a second bankruptcy, asks pilots to accept a 16.5% pay cut. [http://money.cnn.com/2004/08/20/news/fortune500/us_air.reut/index.htm (CNN)]
- Three individuals in the United States are arrested and charged with supporting the Palestinian militant group Hamas over a 15-year period. [http://washingtontimes.com/national/20040820-113158-5933r.htm (Washington Times)]
- Homeland Security official Asa Hutchinson apologizes for a database mixup that causes US senator Ted Kennedy to be held up at airline gates three times, on suspicion that he is a terrorist. [http://informationweek.com/story/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=29116585 (Information Week)]
- Maoist rebels shoot a police officer and detonate two bombs in Kathmandu, the capital of Nepal. [http://www.thestar.com/NASApp/cs/ContentServer?pagename=thestar/Layout/Article_Type1&c=Article&cid=1092998242293&call_pageid=968332188492&col=968705899037 (Toronto Star)]
- Refugee camps in Darfur are hit by hepatitis E, a deadly virus. [http://allafrica.com/stories/200408200071.html (AllAfrica.com)]

August 19, 2004

- An on-going battle, apparently between a combination of U.S. and Iraqi forces, and the al-Mahdi Army of Muqtada al-Sadr, damages two of minarets of the Imam Ali Mosque in Najaf, Iraq, which al-Sadr's forces occupied. [http://www.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/meast/08/19/iraq.main/index.html (CNN)]
- Artillery and mortar fire again rock Georgia's breakaway republic of South Ossetia, scuppering efforts to enforce a ceasefire. [http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3579012.stm (BBC)]
- At the Non-Aligned Movement summit in Durban, South African President Thabo Mbeki calls for reform of the UN and other international institutions, saying that developing countries should not allow powerful nations to dictate the world on their own terms. [http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3580338.stm (BBC)]
- A jury including U.S. talk show host Oprah Winfrey convicts Dion Coleman of murder after two hours of deliberation. [http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/tv_and_radio/3578906.stm (BBC)]
- Israel's prime minister, Ariel Sharon, vows to press on with his disengagement plan, despite it receiving another rejection from his Likud party. [http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/3578860.stm (BBC)]
- Nature magazine reveals that five new satellites and a further candidate moon have been discovered orbiting Neptune, bringing its tally to 13. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3578210.stm (BBC)]
- Shares of stock in Google, Inc. begin trading on the NASDAQ stock exchange at around $100 per share in one of the most highly anticipated initial public offerings of the year. It is estimated that the IPO raised a total of $1.66 billion, the third highest ever for an IPO. [http://www.reuters.com/aitoolkit/aitArticle.jhtml?type=hotStocksNews&storyID=6020986 (Reuters)] [http://cbs.marketwatch.com/news/story.asp?guid=%7B892B3D22%2DB024%2D4119%2DA5EB%2DA56E2DD46100%7D&siteid=mktw (CBS MarketWatch)]
- Hungarian prime minister Péter Medgyessy resigns following a row with his Socialist party's liberal coalition partner, the Free Democrats. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3581064.stm (BBC)]

August 18, 2004

- In a statement issued from his Baghdad office, Shiite Muslim cleric Muqtada al-Sadr agrees to order his militia to leave the Imam Ali Mosque in Najaf, Iraq, after threats by Prime Minister Iyad Allawi's government to "liberate" it. Al-Sadr further agrees to disband his Jaish-i-Mahdi militia, and enter the "mainstream political process". It remains unclear when the withdrawal will actually take place. [http://www.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/meast/08/18/iraq.main/index.html (CNN)] [http://www.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=topNews&storyID=6009166 (Reuters)]
- The government of Colombia announces that it offered, in July, to trade 50 imprisoned guerrillas in return for hostages being held by the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3578532.stm (BBC)]
- In Dublin, Ireland the Dublin Port Tunnel excavation works were completed and the final tunnel boring machine breakthrough ceremony took place.

August 17, 2004

- The National Assembly of Serbia unanimously adopts new state symbols for Serbia: Boze Pravde becomes the new anthem and the coat of arms is adopted for the whole country. ([http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3573958.stm BBC])

August 16, 2004

- After 60 mm (2.4 in) of rain in two hours, severe flash flooding at Boscastle in Cornwall, UK, results in buildings, roads, and over 50 cars swept away. Flood waters race through town at speeds up to 65 km/h (40 mph). Many have to leave their homes; helicopters airlift 150 people to safety. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/cornwall/3571844.stm (BBC)] [http://www.reuters.co.uk/newsPackageArticle.jhtml?type=topNews&storyID=566587§ion=news (Reuters)]
- NASA/ESA Spacecraft Cassini-Huygens discovers two new natural satellites of Saturn. They are provisionally named "S/2004 S 1" (later named "Methone") and "S/2004 S 2" (later named "Pallene"). [http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/news/press-releases-04/20040816-pr-a.cfm (NASA)]
- In the standoff between the Jaish-i-Mahdi militia and Iraqi and US forces, fears of a major assault on Najaf mount. The city is closed to journalists and some Iraqi government soldiers are reported to desert. Some delegates at the national conference call on Iraqi interim Prime Minister Allawi to end military operations against Muqtada al-Sadr. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/3568570.stm (BBC)] [http://www.realcities.com/mld/krwashington/9409919.htm (Knight Ridder)]
- At the 100th anniversary ceremony of the Herero uprising, Germany apologises for the genocide in Namibia, but rules out reparations. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/germany/article/0,2763,1283864,00.html (Guardian)]
- Same-sex marriage in Canada: Federal justice minister Irwin Cotler announces that the federal government will no longer resist court proceedings aiming to require provincial governments to issue same-sex marriage licences. [http://www.thestar.com/NASApp/cs/ContentServer?pagename=thestar/Layout/Article_Type1&c=Article&cid=1092694223358&call_pageid=968332188492&col=968793972154 (Toronto Star)]

August 15, 2004

- Chávez recall: Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez defeats a recall vote with 58% support. Some opposition members claim election fraud, but monitors from the OAS and the Carter Center endorse the official result. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/3569012.stm (BBC)] [http://story.news.yahoo.com/news?tmpl=story&cid=535&e=2&u=/ap/20040816/ap_on_re_la_am_ca/venezuela_recall_carter (AP)]
- 1,300 Iraqi delegates begin a three-day conference in Baghdad to select an interim national assembly. The area of the conference is attacked by mortars, which kill one person and wound 17. [http://www.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=worldNews&storyID=5977984 (Reuters)]
- 1,600 Palestinians in Israeli jails begin a liquids-only diet, which they are describing as a hunger strike to protest against their prison conditions. Israeli Internal Security Minister Tzahi Hanegbi comments: "As far as I'm concerned, they can strike for a day, a month, until death." [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/3567130.stm (BBC)]
- India's Independence Day celebrations are marred by a bomb blast that kills some 18 people at a parade in Dhemaji, Assam. Immediate suspicion falls on ULFA separatists. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3566460.stm (BBC)]
- Same-sex marriage in Canada: Three Nova Scotia couples have filed suit requesting that the provincial government be ordered to issue them marriage licences. Such a ruling would make Nova Scotia the fifth province or territory to recognize same-sex marriages. [http://www.365gay.com/newscon04/08/081504nsMarr.htm (365Gay.com)]

August 14, 2004

- Gunmen kill at least 156 people – mainly women and children – in an overnight raid on the Gatumba camp for Congolese Tutsi refugees in Burundi, the UN says. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3564358.stm (BBC)]
- An ailing Pope John Paul II visits the grotto of Lourdes on a two-day pilgrimage to one of the Roman Catholic world's most revered shrines. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3563434.stm (BBC)]
- US planes bomb the city of Samarra, north-west of Baghdad. In Najaf, a fragile ceasefire holds, with Muqtada al-Sadr making defiant statements but continuing negotiations. The Allawi government decides to withdraw from the negotiations in the afternoon. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/3564320.stm (BBC)] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/3564122.stm (BBC)] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/3565200.stm (BBC)]
- Hurricane Charley becomes Florida's most destructive hurricane in 12 years, passing directly over the town of Punta Gorda. Tropical Storm Bonnie spawns tornadoes in North Carolina and moves north to cause flooding in New Brunswick. [http://www.cbc.ca/story/world/national/2004/08/14/hurricane040814.html (CBC)]
- India hangs convicted rapist and murderer Dhananjoy Chatterjee at dawn in Alipore jail, Kolkata – the country's first execution in nine years. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3562278.stm (BBC)]

August 13, 2004

- Aides to rebel Iraqi Shia cleric Moqtada al Sadr report that he has been wounded in fighting in the holy city of Najaf; the government denies the reports. The Najaf offensive triggers pro-Sadr protests in cities all over Iraq. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3560662.stm (BBC)][http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_pictures/3562532.stm (protest pictures - BBC)]
- In Basra, Iraq, masked militants kidnap and threaten to kill James Brandon, 23, a freelance British journalist, working for the Sunday Telegraph, unless US troops withdraw from Najaf within 24 hours. He is released after intervention by al-Sadr. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/3560892.stm (BBC)]
- Hurricane Charley makes landfall just north of Fort Myers, Florida, USA, around 16:00 EDT (2000 UTC). At landfall, Charley has a windspeed of 145 mi/h (230 km/h), Category 4 storm on the Saffir-Simpson hurricane scale. There are multiple fatalites.[http://www.cnn.com/2004/WEATHER/08/13/storms/index.html (CNN)]
- A spectacular opening ceremony marks the start of the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, Greece. [http://www.athens2004.com/en/FeatureOpeningCeremony (Athens 2004)] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/olympics_2004/3557922.stm (BBC)]
- A group of women kill an alleged rapist during his trial in Nagpur, India. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/3562236.stm (BBC)]

August 12, 2004

- Lee Hsien Loong is sworn in as the 3rd Prime Minister of Singapore. [http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2004/08/13/2003198509 (Taipei Times)] [http://www.voanews.com/article.cfm?objectID=7324C

Damage

Damage can refer to:
- Damage (comics), a comic book series
- Damage (novel), a 1991 novel by Josephine Hart
- Damage (film), a 1992 film by Louis Malle
- Damage: Live, a 1994/2001 album by David Sylvian
- "Damage", episode 71 of the TV series Star Trek: Enterprise
- Damage, a New York hardcore band

Hurricane Charley

:This article is about the 2004 hurricane. For other storms named Hurricane Charley, see Hurricane Charley (disambiguation). Hurricane Charley was the third named storm, the second hurricane, and the second major hurricane of the 2004 Atlantic hurricane season. It caused major damage to parts of Cuba as it crossed the island as a Category 3 hurricane, and strengthened further before reaching the U.S. It made landfall at Charlotte Harbor in Charlotte County, Florida, as a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale. It was the strongest hurricane to strike the area since Hurricane Donna in 1960 and the strongest hurricane to strike Florida since Hurricane Andrew in 1992. After following the East Coast of the U.S., it eventually dissipated near Cape Cod.

Storm history

Charley was initially a well-developed tropical wave approaching the Windward Islands. On August 9, while around 50 miles (80 km) southeast of Grenada, this wave organized enough to become the third tropical depression of the year. After crossing the islands into the eastern Caribbean Sea, the depression strengthened further, becoming Tropical Storm Charley on the morning of August 10. August 10 just after landfall. (animated version)]] The storm moved rapidly across the Caribbean, and reached hurricane strength on August 11, 90 miles (150 km) south of Kingston, Jamaica. Hurricane Charley then passed just south of Jamaica, and the next morning passed between Grand Cayman and Little Cayman. On the night of August 12, Charley passed just east of the Isle of Youth, then over mainland Cuba, just west of downtown Havana as a category 3 hurricane with winds estimated at 120 mph (190 km/h). After passing over Cuba, Charley weakened slightly to 110 mph and crossed the Straits of Florida. Around 8 a.m. EDT, Charley passed over the Dry Tortugas. Tropical storm force winds of 41 mph (65 km/h) were recorded at Key West International Airport, 70 miles (115 km) east. The course Charley took at this time caught many by surprise. Instead of following the predicted track north through the Tampa-St. Petersburg area, Charley made an abrupt turn to the northeast, heading for Fort Myers and Sanibel Island. This track was well within the official forecast's margin of error, and NHC forecaster intern Robbie Berg publicly blamed the media for misleading residents of areas further south [http://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,1282,64590,00.html]. NHC.]] At the same time as it turned, Charley rapidly strengthened, going from a Category 2 storm at 110 mph (170 km/h) with a central pressure of 965 millibars to a Category 4 storm at 150 mph (235 km/h) with a central pressure of 941 millibars in only three hours. This rapid intensification was outside the official forecast, which called for only a slight strengthening before landfall. The change in strength was so drastic that the NHC issued a special hurricane advisory outside of its normal schedule. Some have speculated that the winds were even stronger at landfall, possibly at or near Category 5 strength (155 mph or 250 km/h), based on later images and assessments. However, the minimum central pressure of 941 mb does not justify such. NHC satellite at 12:45 p.m. EDT on August 14, 2004.]] Charley became the second tropical storm to strike Florida in 24 hours when Tropical Storm Bonnie struck the Florida panhandle in Apalachicola at 11 a.m. EDT on August 12, 22 hours before Charley went over the Dry Tortugas. This made 2004 the first year two officially designated storms have struck the same state in the same 24-hour period since 1906. Mainland landfall occurred only 29 hours apart. At 3:45 p.m. EDT, Charley made landfall at Cayo Costa, north of Fort Myers. Charley moved inland near Charlotte Harbor shortly afterwards. Its track would take it directly over Port Charlotte, Arcadia, Wauchula, Kissimmee and Orlando. Sustained winds over 100 mph (160 km/h) were felt as far inland as Orlando. Near midnight local time, Charley began moving back over water, exiting Florida near Daytona Beach. It returned to land around 11 a.m. near North Myrtle Beach, South Carolina still retaining hurricane strength. Charley continued to run off and on land up the East Coast of the United States, and dissipated near Cape Cod around mid-day on August 15. Charley's strongest gusts were measured at 180 mph (290 km/h) at Punta Gorda. This is an amazing speed for a hurricane.

Impact

One death in Jamaica, four deaths in Cuba, and ten deaths in the United States were directly attributed to Charley. Numerous injuries were reported, as well as twenty indirect deaths in the U.S. Property damage from Charley in the United States was estimated by the NHC at $15 billion (2004 USD) [http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/pastcost2.shtml]. This made Charley the second costliest hurricane in United States history behind Hurricane Andrew's $43.7 billion in the 1992 season, though it has since been surpassed by the 2005 season's Hurricane Katrina. Damage in Cuba has been estimated at over $1 billion USD. [http://msnbc.msn.com/id/5830669/] Hurricane Katrina]] As many as two million people were initially reported without power in Florida, and a week after landfall it was estimated that about 240,000 were still without power. The Tampa Electric Company cut power in downtown Tampa to avoid potential damage to the underground power grid from short circuits, caused by the storm surge of conductive seawater. Havana's power was also knocked out by Charley when it passed by. Over a million Florida residents were evacuated. Mandatory evacuation of non-residents, recreational vehicles, mobile home residents, and special needs residents from the Florida Keys was ordered. An evacuation order for the coastal areas of Lee County was also issued. Pinellas, Hillsborough, Manatee, Pasco and Sarasota Counties all had mandatory evacuations for areas prone to the effects of storm surge. President George W. Bush declared Florida a federal disaster area, and Governor Mark Sanford of South Carolina declared a state of emergency, ordering an evacuation of two coastal counties, including Myrtle Beach. Myrtle Beach, surveys hurricane damage at a mobile home park in Fort Myers, Florida.]] Theme parks in Orlando, including Universal Orlando, Seaworld and Disney's parks closed early; Disney Parks were open exclusively for those staying in Disney Resorts. Disney's Animal Kingdom never opened at all, making this only the second time Disney's parks have closed due to a hurricane (The first was during Hurricane Floyd.[http://www.cnn.com/2004/WEATHER/08/13/storms/index.html]). Ironically, Hurricane Charley closed the Typhoon Lagoon park longer than the Magic Kingdom and EPCOT. The parks, except for Animal Kingdom and other areas, reopened on Saturday, August 14 with limited staff. Public schools in some counties in the path of the hurricane were scheduled to be closed for two weeks.[http://www.cnn.com/2004/WEATHER/08/16/storms/index.html] In some areas this was necessary because the school buildings were damaged or destroyed (especially in Charlotte County). In other parts of Florida, no power or water was yet available. Agricultural losses were heavy. Florida is the second-largest producer of oranges in the world and the storm damaged one-third of the state's orange groves. The loss to the citrus crop was estimated at $150 million. The loss could reach one-quarter of the total crop. Other crops and agricultural buildings and equipment also suffered. The name Charley was retired in the spring of 2005 by the World Meteorological Organization and will be replaced by Colin in the 2010 season.

External links

- [http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/2004charley.shtml? NHC Tropical Cyclone Report on Hurricane Charley]
- [http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/2004/refresh/CHARLEY+shtml/130552.shtml Hurricane Charley Advisory Archive]
- [http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/2004/tws/MIATWSAT_aug.shtml? NHC August Monthly Tropical Weather Summary] - includes figures for damages and fatalities
- [http://www.sptimes.com/2004/08/24/State/Lack_of_a_standard_pl.shtml Lack of a standard places Charley's deaths in question] Charley (2004) Charley Charley (2004) Charley Charley Charley Category:2004 meteorology Category:Historic weather events in the United States

Hangar

A hangar is a metal, wooden, or concrete structure designed to hold one or many aircraft in protective storage. Hangars may be used to protect aircraft from weather or enemy attack (if in a wartime environment), when undergoing repairs, or are simply not in use. Any type of aircraft can be housed in a hangar—some very large ones were constructed to house dirigibles during refueling and boarding. The word hangar comes from a northern French dialect, and literally means "cattle pen." French (helicopters), and lighter-than-air ships.]]

History

lighter-than-air ships lighter-than-air ships In 1909, Louis Bleriot crash-landed on a northern French farm in Les Baraques (between Sangatte and Calais) and rolled his monoplane into the farmer's cattle pen. At the time, Bleriot was in a race to be the first man to cross the English Channel in a heavier-than-air aircraft, so he set up headquarters in the unused shed. After returning home, Bleriot called REIDsteel, the maker of the cattle pen, and ordered three "hangars" for personal use. REIDsteel continues to make hangars and hangar parts to this day. The Wright brothers were the first to store and repair a functional airplane in a protective structure. They constructed a wooden hangar in 1902 on Kill Devil Hill in North Carolina for their glider. After completing design and construction of the Wright Flyer in Ohio, the brothers returned to Kill Devil Hill only to find their hangar damaged. They repaired the structure and constructed a new workshop while they waited for the Flyer to be shipped. After every disappointing run they returned to the hangar to carry out any repairs.

Airship hangars

Ohio Air Station in Tustin, California. The structures appear in the [http://www.nationalregisterofhistoricplaces.com/CA/Orange/state2.html National Register of Historic Places] as #NPS-#75000451.]] Airship hangars are generally larger than conventional airplane hangars (particularly in terms of their overall height), which subjects them to different design constraints. Many early airships used hydrogen gas to provide them with sufficient buoyancy for flight, so their hangars therefore had to provide protection from stray sparks in order to to prevent the flammable gas from exploding. Hangars that held multiple craft of this type were at risk from chain-reaction explosions. For this reason, most hangars for hydrogen-based airships were sized to house only 1 or 2 such craft. With World War I on the horizon, hangar design had to keep pace with advances in aviation technology. Airships were becoming a standard for transoceanic travel. The Germans used Zeppelins to bomb Paris and London, while the British used blimps (non-rigid airships) to patrol their coasts. The US Navy established two "lighter-than-air" bases on the West Coast during World War II as part of the coastal defense plan, which required the construction of some of the world's largest freestanding wood structures.

External links

World War II. The structure measures some 1,000 feet long by 300 feet wide by 18 stories tall, and is said to "create its own weather" due to the large volume of air inside.]]
- [http://www.hangardoorsecrets.com Aircraft Hangar Door Designs]
- [http://www.buildingsguide.com/aircraft-hangars.htm Aircraft Hangars] at [http://www.buildingsguide.com BuildingsGuide.com]
- [http://www.militarymuseum.org/MCASTustin.html Marine Corps Air Station, Tustin] at the [http://www.militarymuseum.org California Military Musem] official website
- [http://www.challoner.com/aviation/hangars/index.html Nick Challoner's photo history of British Hangars]
- [http://www.reidsteel.aero/history.htm REIDsteel] company website Category:Aviation Category:Buildings and structures

Johannes Aavik

Johannes Aavik (8. detsember (26. november) 1880 Saaremaa – 18. märts 1973 Stockholm) oli eesti keeleteadlane. Ta sündis Saaremaal Randvere külas (Kõiguste vald) vallakirjutaja Mihkel Aaviku (1844-1909) pojana. Isa vend, Kuressaare kaupmees Jakob Aavik (Joosep Aaviku isa) ostis Mihklile Kuressaarde maja. Johannes Aaviku isa asus sinna elama koos abikaasa Ann Aaviku (1849-1918) ja laste Aadu, Liisi ja Juuliga. Johannes Aavik elas oma vanematekodus Kuressaare gümnaasiumi õpilasena aastail 1898-1902 ja hiljem, 1919-1926 samas koolis eesti keele õpetajana töötades. Kuressaare gümnaasiumis sai alguse Aaviku huvi emakeele vastu, prantsuse ja ladina keele harrastus. Keelealaseid õpinguid jätkas ta Tartu Ülikoolis, Nežini Ajaloo- ja Filoloogiainstituudis ja Helsingi ülikoolis, viimase lõpetas filoloogiakandidaadi kraadiga. Aavik tegutses hiljem keeleõpetajana Jaltas, Tartus, Kuressaares, töötas ka "Postimehe" toimetuses. Ta oli 1926–1934 Tartu ülikoolis eesti keele lektor ja gümnaasiumiõpetaja Tartus, 1934. aastast haridusnõunik (koolide peainspektor), 1940–1941 kirjastuses toimetaja. Saksa okupatsiooni ajal elas Nõmmel. 1944 siirdus Rootsi, kus tegutses Stockholmis arhiivitöötajana, tõlkijana, keeleliste artiklite ja kooliraamatute autorina. Ta suri Stockholmis ja maeti sealsele Metsakalmistule. Aavikule kuulub tähelepanuväärne koht eesti tänapäeva kirjakeele kujundamisel. 1912. aastal algatas ta keeleuuendusliikumise; oma programmi peajooned esitas ta artiklis "Tuleviku Eesti-keel" ("Noor-Eesti" IV albumis). Propageerides kirjakeele forsseeritud arendamist ja keele ilu printsiipi, esindas ta keelekorralduse radikaalsemat suunda. 1912–25 esitatud uuendusettepanekud sõnavara rikastamise, morfoloogia (i-mitmus, i-superlatiiv jpm) ning süntaksi eestipärastamise alal leidsid enam vastuvõttu kui tema hilisemad soovitused. Aavik tõi kirjakeelde arvukalt laensõnu (eeskätt soome keelest), murdesõnu ja uudistuletisi, tema kunstlikult loodud uutest tüvisõnadest on umbes 30 läinud eesti keele põhisõnavara hulka. Aavik propageeris aktiivselt oma ettepanekuid brošüürides ja artiklites, loengute ja ettekannetega, kasutas uusi sõnu ning vorme ilukirjanduslikes tõlgetes soome, prantsuse ja inglise keelest (Juhani Aho, Guy de Maupassant, Paul Bourget, Edgar Allan Poe jt). Ta toimetas ajakirju "Keeleline Kuukiri" (1914–1916) ja "Keeleuuendus" (1925–1926), avaldas "Uute sõnade sõnastiku" (1919), "Uute ja vähem tuntud sõnade sõnastiku" (1921), "Keeleuuenduse äärmised võimalused" (1924), "Eesti õigekeelsuse õpiku ja grammatika" (1936). Ta oli "Noor-Eesti" rühmituse aktiivsemaid osalisi, selle albumites ilmusid tema keele- ja kirjandusalased artiklid, tõlked, värsikatsetused ja 1909. aastal estetistliku programmiga esseelaadne jutustus "Ruth" (varjunime all J. Randvere). Ta on avaldanud kriitilis-poleemilised tööd "Eesti luule viletsused" (1915), "Puudused uuemas eesti luules" (1922), saatesõnu tõlketeostele ja käsitlusi rahvaluulest. Välismaal tõlkis ta peamiselt soome (Aino Kallas) ja vene (Ivan Turgenev) kirjandust.

Õpingud

- Kuressaare Poeglaste Gümnaasium 1894–1902
- Tartu Ülikooli vanade keelte osakond 1902–1903
- Nežini Ajaloo- ja Filoloogiainstituut 1903–1905
- Helsingi Ülikool 1906–1910, lõpetas filoloogiakandidaadina
- Filosoofiamagister 1920

Töökohad

- Jalta Aleksandri Gümnaasiumi prantsuse keele õpetaja 1910–1911
- Postimehe toimetuse liige 1912–1914
- Tartu Kommertskooli õpetaja 1914–1920
- Tartu Ülikooli eradotsent 1919–1922
- Saaremaa Ühisgümnaasiumi õpetaja 1920–1926
- Tartu Ülikooli eesti keele lektor 1926–1933
- Tartu tütarlaste ja poeglaste gümnaasiumi õpetaja 1926–1933
- Tartu Ülikooli eradotsent 1933–1940
- Hariduse ja Sotsiaalministeeriumi nõunik, koolide peainspektor 1934–1940
- Kirjastuse toimetaja 1940–1941
- Uppsala Ülikooli assistent 1944–1945
- Stockholmi Ülikooli assistent 1945–1952
- Riiklik stipendiaat 1952–1955

Teosed

- Eesti kirjakeele täiendamise abinõudest (1905)
- Ruth (1909)
- Keele kaunima kõlavuse poole – Eesti Kirjandus 1912, lk. 451-484.
- Eesti rahvusliku suurteose keel (1914)
- Eesti kirjakeelse stiili arenemise järgud – Noor-Eesti V, Tartu 1915, lk. 216-229.
- Eesti luule viletsused (1915)
- Keel ja kirjandus – Sõna. Tartu 1918, lk.72-78.
- Uute sõnade sõnastik (1919)
- Uute ja vähem tuntud sõnade sõnastik (1921)
- Puudused uuemas eesti luules (1922)
- Keeleuuenduse äärmised võimalused (1924)
- Kuidas suhtuda "Kalevipojale" (1933)
- Eesti õigekeelsuse õpik ja grammatika (1936) Helgi Vihma on koostanud Aaviku ja Friedebert Tuglase kirjavahetuse väljaande (1990). 2003 avaldati ajakirjas Looming katkendeid Aaviku päevikutest, mis heidavad valgust tema isiksusele. Johannes Aaviku Selts asutati Tallinnas Nõmmel 26. septembril 1992. Seltsi juhib Helgi Vihma.

Välislingid

- [http://www.kirmus.ee/erni/autor/aavi_fo.html Fotod]
- [http://www.saaremaa.ee/est/tourism/vaatamis/aavik.php Johannes ja Joosep Aaviku majamuuseum]
- [http://www.maaleht.ee/LEHT/2000/12/07/kultuur.html#1 Eluloolised andmed ja intervjuu Aavikust Helgi Vihmaga]
- [http://216.239.39.100/search?q=cache:pHrIl-_vftoC:www.referat.ee/ee/doc/aavik.doc+Johannes+Aavik&hl=et&ie=UTF-8 Aaviku elust ja tegevusest]
- [http://www.miksike.ee/elehed/9klass/2emakeel/9-2-9-2e.htm Katkendid Aaviku kirjutisest "Eesti keele tulevik" ja kirjast Eduard Hubelile]
- [http://www.kirmus.ee/erni/kogu/kogu_fr.html?aavi01.html Aaviku retsensioon: "Keelelisi arvustusi: Kaks uuemat luulekogu"]
- [http://www.kes-kus.ee/10/valeri.htm Aarne Ruben Ruthist] Aavik, Johannes Aavik, Johannes Aavik, Johannes

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